Terrorism

An Investigator's Handbook

William E. Dyson, William Dyson

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9781437734874
• eBook ISBN: 9781317521587
• Topic: Law
• Subtopic: Criminology
• Index: Law

This handbook introduces the reader to the field of terrorism investigation. Describing how terrorists operate and how they differ from other criminals, it provides an outline of how terrorism investigations should be conducted. By helping investigators to develop skills and knowledge, this guide helps them to prepare prosecutable cases against terrorists.

1 An Overview of Terrorism

DOI: 10.4324/9781315721309-2

Terrorism presents a greater threat to national and transnational security today than it has presented at any time in history. This has been demonstrated repeatedly since the 21st century began. The September 11, 2001, attacks at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were probably the most devastating terrorist incidents in history—certainly in the history of the United States. The October 12, 2002, attacks on the Island of Bali caused ripples around the world. The May 2003 suicide attacks in Casablanca, Morocco, that killed 45 people; the August 2003 attack on the JW Marriott Hotel in Jakarta, Indonesia; the November 2003 suicide bomber attacks on the British Consulate and British HSBC Bank in Istanbul, Turkey, that killed more than 25 people (including the British Consul-General) and wounded 450 others; and the March 2004 train bombings in Madrid, Spain, which killed 191 people and wounded 2000 others, all illustrate how serious the threat has become.

As the century progressed the terrorist threat continued as was manifested through attacks such as the September 1–3, 2004, Chechen separatist takeover of a secondary school in Beslan, Russia, that resulted in 322 people being killed, including 155 children, and 500 people being wounded; the bombings of three underground trains and one public bus in London, England, on July 5, 2005, that killed 54 people and injured some 700 others; the simultaneous bombings on July 23, 2005, at the Red Sea resort of Sharm el-Sheikh in Egypt that killed almost 90 people and wounded 120 others; the triple suicide bombings of tourist hotels in Amman, Jordan, on November 9, 2005, that killed some 60 people and wounded more than 300 others; the multiple bombs that exploded on July 11, 2006, on the Indian railway system around Bombay that killed around 185 people and wounded more than 700 others; the October 16, 2006, attack on Sri Lankan sailors near the towns of Dambulla and Sigiriya that killed more than 100 sailors and wounded more than 150 others; the attempted car bombings in a crowded entertainment area of London, England, on June 29, 2007, and the related suicide car bombing of the Glasgow International Airport in Scotland on the following day; the October 19, 2007, bombing of a procession in Karachi, Pakistan, that was carrying former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto from the airport as she returned to the country from years of exile, that killed almost 140 people and wounded more than 300 others; the subsequent December 27, 2007, suicide attack in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, that killed Mrs. Bhutto and some 20 others; the May 13, 2008, seven-bomb attack by militants in the Indian city of Jaipur that killed at least 80 people and wounded 150 others; and the September 20, 2008, suicide bombing outside of the Marriott Hotel in Islamabad, Pakistan, that destroyed the hotel and killed 60 people and injured over 250 others.

As the first decade of the 21st century drew to an end, serious terrorist attacks continued with the armed attack on hotels, a railroad station, a Jewish Outreach group, a police station, a hospital, and other locations in Mumbai, India, over a 60-hour period beginning on November 26, 2008, killing almost 200 people and injuring around 300 others; and the October 28, 2009, car bomb that exploded in the Meena Bazaar in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing almost 120 people and wounding at least 200 others. On February 18, 2010, a man upset with the U.S. government flew a small plane into the seven-story building housing the Internal Revenue Service in Austin, Texas. This horrific act largely destroyed the building. Through some miracle only one person was killed, and a dozen others were injured. Nonetheless, the attack generated great fear as people realized that hundreds could have lost their lives. On May 10, 2010, Maoist militants caused a train to derail in West Bengal State, India, killing almost 150 people and injuring hundreds of others. On that same date, Islamic militants attacked two Ahmadi sect mosques in Lahore, Pakistan. Over 90 people were killed and dozens of others were wounded in the assaults. On July 11, 2010, suicide bombers blew themselves up at two locations in Kampala, Uganda, killing around 75 people; and on November 5, 2010, in Akhurwal, Pakistan, a suicide bomber blew himself up outside of a mosque, killing almost 70 people and wounding more than 100 others. On January 24, 2011, a suicide bomber blew himself up in the busy baggage claim area of Domodedovo International Airport, the busiest airport serving Moscow, Russia. The explosion killed some 35 people and wounded upward to 180 others.

Even the domestic single-issue militant group, the Earth Liberation Front(ELF), proved that it could cause a catastrophic attack when it perpetrated arson in San Diego, California, on August 1, 2003, that caused $50 million in damage. On March 3, 2008, the same group claimed responsibility for burning three luxury homes in Snohomish County, Oregon, causing multimillions of dollars in damage. On September 4, 2009, the ELF claimed responsibility for toppling two radio towers in Snohomish County. On May 31, 2009, a single-issue antiabortion extremist murdered Dr. George Tiller in Wichita, Kansas. Tiller was one of the few doctors in the country who performed late-term abortions.

An attack does not necessarily have to succeed to cause fear and concern. On December 25, 2009, a Nigerian national attempted to detonate explosives concealed in his underwear while aboard a Northwest Airline flight preparing to land at Detroit’s International Airport. Had the explosives functioned as planned, the explosion would have likely brought down the airliner full of passengers. On May 1, 2010, an Islamic militant unsuccessfully attempted to detonate explosives in a vehicle that he had parked in a crowded section of Times Square in New York City.Had this device functioned, numerous people would have been killed. Also during 2009 and 2010, law enforcement agencies successfully penetrated conspiracies in which militants were planning to detonate vehicle bombs in crowded areas of Dallas, Texas; Springfield, Illinois; New York City; and Portland, Oregon. In each of these cases undercover officers were able to ensure that the “explosives” being used by the militants were inert and would not function. Numerous people would have lost their lives had any of these bombs exploded. These examples are only a few of the horrific attacks that have occurred around the world during the first 11 years of the 21st century.

As the term is used today, terrorism is the illegal use of extreme force and violence for the purpose of coercing a governmental entity or population to modify its philosophy and direction. Traditionally, terrorism has been employed by a small minority of a population who are unwilling or unable to wait for the majority to concur with, or implement, their program or has been employed by oppressed people who have not had any option other than to use force to make change. Terrorism can also be deployed by a minority who realize that the majority plans to make changes that they do not desire. Certainly the Ku Klux Klan of the 1960s who attacked local blacks and visiting white civil rights workers in the southern United States did so in an effort to maintain long-established segregationist policies that they feared that society no longer accepted and that the government was going to change. In the later 20th century, single-issue extremists came on the scene and,by the 21st 21st century,had become the most prolific terrorists functioning in the United States. These people often do not seek to overthrow the government. Instead they seek to make changes in a particular area of concern, such as abolishing abortion. Many single-issue extremists do not come from the oppressed or the extreme minority and are not reactionaries seeking to return to the past. Although most people reject their use of violence, the ultimate goal that single-issue militants are seeking may be shared by a large part of the population.

There are numerous definitions of terrorism. Indeed, many government and private entities involved in the field have their own definition of the term. Some of these definitions consist of a single sentence, while others can be several pages long. Regardless of their authorship, all definitions of terrorism stress extreme violence and fear generated in furtherance of political and social objectives.

Historical Terrorism

A review of recorded history reveals that violent attacks that would fall under the current definition of terrorism have occurred periodically throughout the ages. It can be assumed that terrorism probably dates to when humans first began to live in a communal environment. Perhaps the first terrorist incident occurred in a cave when several members of the community attempted to force a change in leadership by setting a fire or causing a rockslide.

Attempting to determine the exact role that terrorists have played in shaping the history of the world is not particularly easy. It appears that throughout most of history, terrorism has been more of a bothersome irritant to the governments in power than an actual threat to them. There are some instances in which terrorists have played a significant role in a movement that has caused a drastic government change. However, in most situations in which a major alteration of government has occurred, terrorists at best appear to have occupied only peripheral roles in a movement. The significance of the terrorist role in these revolutions is open to question. The movement would probably have succeeded without terrorist attacks. The seeds of discontent were well sown. At best, the terrorists hastened the inevitable revolution.

Many cite the American Revolution against the British as an example of a terrorist success. Incidents such as the Boston Tea Party and the burning of Chief Justice Thomas Hutchinson’s Boston residence did occur. Today, these actions would be labeled as terrorist incidents. However, it appears that the movement toward freedom was well under way in the American colonies for a variety of reasons. The violent colonist-perpetrated terrorist attacks at most quickened the process, but did not cause the revolution.

Probably the single most successful form of terrorist attack that has been used throughout history is the assassination of a nation’s leader. Unlike today, when self-rule democratic governments are quite common in advanced countries, during much of the world’s history single leadership was more the rule. In such situations, assassinating the monarch or dictator would result in some kind of change in managerial direction and style. However, assassinations of top leaders have not been very common throughout history. And many of the attacks that have occurred have not been terrorist incidents. Some were coups by military leaders, relatives, and advisors to the leader. These were more selfish than terroristic in nature. Others were committed during mass rebellions. Mentally ill people have also been responsible for nssassinations.

Throughout history, terrorists have faced serious problems trying to make an impact and in accomplishing their ultimate objectives. Although they have advocated rapid changes in government policies, they have often lacked the tools necessary to foster these changes.Frequently they have had some success in generating extreme fear within limited perimeters, but they have usually been unable to cause mass hysteria. Further, terrorists have experienced great difficulty in communicating their philosophy to the masses. Even in instances in which they have perpetrated a violent attack, such as an assassination or bombing, terrorists have experienced difficulty in claiming credit for that act or in providing their explanation for committing it.

Modern Terrorism

A number of the factors that tended to impede terrorists during most of historyvanished during the 20th century. Many of the innovations that occurred during that period, particularly during the second half of the millennium, were beyond the imagination of people living during the 19th century or earlier. By the 1960s, the era of modern terrorism began. It was at about that time that, perhaps for the first time in history, it had become possible for a small group of individuals to cause catastrophic damage and to almost instantly communicate their reasons for doing so. Rapid technological advances are likely to continue into the future, although probably not as profoundly as during the 20th century.

There are four main areas in which 20th- and 21st-century advances have had a profound impact on terrorists: communications, technology, weapons, and transportation.

Communications

Advances realized during the 20th century in the area of communications surpassed those made in any other period of history. These advances have enabled terrorists to promulgate their message faster and more thoroughly than ever before. These advances have enabled terrorists to communicate with their comrades and with sympathizers and members of other groups. These advances have also enabled terrorists to learn how to perpetrate more frightening attacks than previously envisioned.

Prior to the beginning of the 20th century, communication was largely composed of personal verbal exchanges and letters. Written communication, in the form of books, periodicals, and newspapers, had existed for several hundred years, but their availability was limited. Information was not readily available, and by modern standards the accuracy of what was available was often questionable. Compounding the problem was the large illiteracy rate in even the most advanced nations. Consequently, many people could not benefit from the written forms of communication that were available. The situation improved a great deal during the 19th centurywith development of the telephone and telegraph, but these forms of communication were not readily available to the masses and were not always reliable.

The 20th century saw the telephone become so commonplace that most residents of advanced nations had access to one before the century ended. Even people residing in the least developed nations of the world presently have some access to telephones. Today, many people living in industrialized nations regularly carry cellular telephones. Many American teenagers and even younger children have their own cell phones. These devices have become so compact that they can be carried in a shirt pocket and resemble a credit card. The newest cell phones also allow the caller to transmit fixed images and videos, send text messages, and access the Internet. This means that people can remain in contact with others, regardless of their location.

Developments in radio and television have made possible rapid and direct, verbal and visual contacts between people all overthe world. The Internet has done the same. E-mail has become so commonplace that even children have their own e-mail addresses. Internet chat rooms are used regularly by millions of people. Millions of people regularly visit social networks such as Facebook and MySpace. These developments could nothave even been imagined by our forefathers who lived two centuries ago.

The terrorist has benefited from these advances in communications technology. For the first time in history, any terrorist can present his or her message to a large audience with relatively little effort. Any attack that a terrorist perpetrates will receive rapid worldwide attention. If the terrorist wants to cause fear, he or she has mass communication to help spread the word. People around the world saw the aftermath of the violent attacks on New York’s World Trade Center in 1993 and on Oklahoma City’s Murrah Federal Building in 1995 before many of the rescue workers arrived on the scene. Had the perpetrators of these attacks chosen to do so, they could have given advance warnings to local television stations, thereby giving the entire world an opportunity to actually view a terrorist attack as it was happening. To an extent, that is exactly what occurred on September 11, 2001, in the United States. Millions of people turned on their television sets after hearing of an airplane striking one of the World Trade Center towers and saw the second plane crash into the other tower. Terrorists thrive on publicity for their cause. Modern communications technology clearly enables the terrorists to receive maximum exposure.

Modern communication has also made it possible for people having strong views on a subject to find others who hold similar beliefs regardless of where they may live. Prior to the 20th century, people seeking a change in government and society may not have realized that there were others who held similar views; even if they did, they may not have had any way to converse with them.

Technology

Manyof the basic aspects of life that we take for granted did not exist or existed only in a rudimentary manner prior to the 20th century. Possibly the most important of these developments is the controlled use of electricity. Related to this is the development of items capable of storing electricity—batteries.

The development of the personal computer has altered the world as it has never before been changed. Today, computers are involved in almost every aspect of our lives. Everything from food production to home heating has been affected. Almost every profession has been altered in some respect by computers. In-home use of the personal computer has increased steadily, and soon almost every adult and teenager in America and other industrial nations will be online. An ever-increasing number of schools and employers will only accept applications sent to them via the Internet. E-mail has become a very common means of communication.

For the terrorist, the personal computer has been helpful in a variety of ways. It enables rapid, inexpensive, worldwide communication. Never before have terrorists been able to promulgate their message with such speed. Terrorists have also benefited from the knowledge that is available via the Internet. They can learn how to construct bombs or find sources from whom they can obtain such devices. They can learn about modern weapons and find sources for them. They can locate targets to attack. They can contact one another with relative security.

Because the computer has become so integral to the functioning of the government and the civilian sector, terrorists can generate great fear by attacking them. Bombing a bank may send a message that a group wants a change in a country’s monetary system. However, tampering in some way with a bank’s computer system so that large sums are “misfiled” among thousands of accounts could actually create fear that would make the bomb appear insignificant by comparison.

Of course, for the terrorist, the computer itself can be used as a weapon. Computers are widely deployed to manage and control systems so that certain activities occur at particular times. For example, aspects of a city water system are likely to be controlled by a computer that regulates the amount of chemicals that are added to ensure purity. Certainly, any computer that directs or manages such a function can be instructed or programmed to misdirect or mismanage that function. One can visualize a terrorist programming the computer that manages a city’s electrical power to suddenly send a surge of current through the power lines—blowing out transformers, damaging anything run by electric power, and causing fires.

Weapons

Terrorists attempt to publicize and engender support for their beliefs. What sets the terrorist apart and makes him unique is his willingness to use violence to persuade and coerce others to follow his agenda. If true fear is to be generated, the terrorist must use weapons that are capable of causing mass hysteria. Consequently, many terrorist attacks that occurred before the mid-20th century were suicidal in nature. The primitive level of weapons available often forced the terrorist to have direct contact with his victim—a factor that usually led to his being apprehended or killed. It is difficult to imagine John Wilkes Booth being able to kill President Lincoln without having been in his immediate presence. Even as late as 1963, when President Kennedy was killed, it was difficult for an assassin to ensure success without being physically close to his target. The weapons that have been available to violent agitators throughout most of history, including knives, bows and arrows, swords, and spears, all have required close proximity to the target. Early firearms did not improve the situation very much. Even the explosives that became available during the Middle Ages required that the perpetrator be close to his target.

The lack of sophisticated weapons had a chilling effect on would-be terrorists throughout most of history. No one will be able to determine how many would-be terrorists remained inactive because they lacked the weapons that would have enabled them to commit violent attacks. Althoug...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Foreword
• Preface
• Section I. The Nature of Terrorism and the Threat it Presents
• 1. An Overview of Terrorism
• 2. Defining, Delineating, and Dissecting Terrorism
• 3. Religious-Based Terrorism
• 4. What Investigators Need to Known about Terrorists
• Section II. Investigative Techniques
• 5. An Overview of Investigative Techniques as they Apply to Terrorism
• 6. What the Terrorist Knows about Law Enforcement
• 7. Interviewing
• 8. Polygraph Examinations
• 9. Records Checks
• 10. Surveillance
• 11. Informants
• 12. Trash Cover
• 13. Pretext Telephone Calls
• 14. Physical Evidence
• 15. The Crime Scene
• 16. Mail Cover
• 17. The Investigative Task Force
• 18. Undercover Operations
• 19. Technical Investigative Techniques
• 20. Investigative Review
• 21. Locating Clandestine and Fugitive Terrorists
• Section III. Factors to Consider when Implementing Investigative Techniques against Terrorists
• 22. The Terrorist in Court
• 23. Ethical Issues and Investigative Techniques
• 24. The Law Enforcement "Offsite" Location
• Section IV. Applying Investigative Techniques to Terrorism Investigations
• 25. When a Clandestine Terrorist is Identified
• 26. Handling a Terrorist Attack
• 27. Crisis Preparation
• Section V. The Future
• 28. The Future of Terrorism Investigation
• Appendix I What to Do in Response to a Terrorist Attack
• Appendix II What Not to Do in Response to a Terrorist Attack
• Appendix III In a Nutshell: Bringing Terrorists to Justice
• Appendix IV Domestic Terrorist Attacks from 2008 through 2010
• Appendix V Key Terms and Concepts
• Appendix VI Selected Extremist Terms
• Index