Applied Anthropology

Unexpected Spaces, Topics and Methods

Sheena Nahm, Cortney Hughes Rinker, Sheena Nahm, Cortney Hughes Rinker

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2015
• Print ISBN:
  9781138914537
• eBook ISBN:
  9781317428022
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Anthropology
• Index: Social Sciences

This collection brings together recent innovative work in applied and practicing anthropology. Organised around the theme of unexpectedness, it examines some of the novel spaces, topics, and methods that anthropologists are involved with. The volume emphasises non-traditional settings and demonstrates the important role of anthropology in addressing some of the pressing issues facing society today. The contributors offer detailed ethnographic examples from their own research and work that give students valuable insight and advice. Drawn mainly from the United States, the case studies illustrate the diverse arenas in which anthropologists operate, from law and finance to education and health care. Simultaneous consideration is given to practical applications, theoretical reflections, and professional experiences.

1

Otherworldly Anthropology

Past, Present, and Future Contributions of Ethnographers to Space Exploration

Jo Aiken

Space exploration is a uniquely human activity. As we continue to push the limits of exploring the unknown, our knowledge of what it means to be human and our capacity for supporting human life beyond the comforts of our Earthly home continues to evolve. Scientists and engineers develop new technologies and advancements in medicine in order to support life among the stars. Likewise, social scientists aid space agencies in understanding human behavior so that astronauts and cosmonauts are selected and trained for mission success. Social science, particularly through ethnography, also aids space explorers who must learn to utilize the new technologies and medical advances in the extreme environment of space while becoming accustomed to life as a space community. It is important that researchers address these challenges so that human survival beyond Earth is not only achievable but so that life among the stars is worth living and sustaining. Ethnography is a useful tool for obtaining an insider’s perspective and holistic viewpoint on the life of the space explorer. Through the application of ethnography and cultural knowledge, anthropologists are uniquely suited to address such topics and help extend the trajectory of space exploration as well as our understanding of humanity to new horizons.

“An anthropologist who studies outer space?” I wish I had a nickel for every puzzled look I receive when telling people, even fellow anthropologists, about my chosen occupation as a researcher in space systems and habitat design. The physical sciences are in familiar territory when it comes to space exploration research. The opportunities for advancements in astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, and even the life sciences made possible by the space industry are rarely debated. Social scientists, anthropologists in particular, have been slow to acknowledge outer space as a useful domain of research and have only recently participated in applied space-related research. However, space exploration is a phenomenon offering unique views of behavior, culture, and community, though it is a research domain that often receives little attention from anthropologists. When I conducted my first applied study concerning crew privacy needs in long-duration spaceflight, I was the only anthropologist at the space agency even though anthropologists’ fascination with this aspect of humanity began shortly after men first traveled to outer space. The following sections of this chapter provide an overview of areas in which anthropology has engaged with and continues to be involved in space exploration research and introduce a domain of anthropological research with a value that is truly out of this world, though often unexpected.

Anthropology and the Domain of Outer Space

The onset of engagement between anthropology and the domain of outer space centered on the subject of extraterrestrial life. In 1961, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) commissioned a study to assess the impact contact with alien life would have on the public. The investigators referenced anthropological studies of societies negatively affected by the introduction of a new group possessing a different set of attitudes, values, and technologies (Dick 2006). Even though this report highlighted the benefits of applying anthropological knowledge to the task, it was not until the 1970s that anthropologists were formally involved in the discussions. In 1971, the Soviet Union invited two anthropologists to attend an international meeting on communication with extraterrestrial intelligence. NASA followed suit in 1972 by inviting anthropologist Ashley Montagu to a symposium in which Montagu made a case for the study of culture contacts. Extraterrestrial life continued to be in focus as the first substantial support of anthropology’s involvement in space cultures came with the sponsorship of the popular science book Cultures Beyond the Earth (Maruyama and Harkins 1975) by the American Anthropological Association (AAA). The book, a result of a 1974 AAA symposium, not only covered extraterrestrial life of the alien variety, but it also classified human explorers as possible extraterrestrials.

Building on anthropological discourse on extraterrestrial life during the 1970s, anthropologist Ben Finney (Finney and Jones 1986) conducted the first fieldwork study with NASA’s Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) project during the mid-1980s. His work with SETI in the mid-1980s was significant in that it was the first time a formal relationship between an anthropologist and a space agency was established (Dick 2006). Finney, referred to by many as the father of space anthropology (Harris 1995; Stuster 1996), was also the first to move beyond extraterrestrial speculation and look at space exploration as a topic worthy of practical anthropological inquiry. Finney continued his work in space exploration throughout the 1980s and 1990s in a consultant role for NASA, where he was the first to formulate a case study as the basis for planning future space societies (Finney 1987). The construction of space societies and extraterrestrial encounters continue to be contemporary topics of interest among social scientists and space enthusiasts (Battaglia 2006; Harris 1995; Pass 2006; Riner 1987).

Future space societies represent only one area of anthropological inquiry posed by space exploration. In addition to futures studies, the domain of space exploration presents opportunities for research regarding other topics often explored by both academic and practicing anthropologists. Space-related research questions of anthropological interest are seen in projects focused on the physiological, psychological, and behavioral impacts of living and working in isolated and extreme environments. Historically, space agencies placed more importance on investigating the biological sciences, but funded projects have increasingly incorporated behavioral and communication perspectives. Although progress has been made in involving the social sciences in space research, agencies’ objectives have remained fixed on improving productivity and mission success (Kanas 2005; Stuster 2010; Clancey 2003, 2012). For this reason, topics of research regarding the environmental, physical or biological, and psychosocial aspects of space travel have remained prevalent in this domain. Organizational culture, collaboration, and technology design are other subjects which anthropologists and like-minded ethnographers have engaged with in regards to space exploration. A closer examination of the five themes of research, (1) environmental, (2) physiological and psychological, (3) organizational and collaborative, (4) technological, and (5) anticipatory, provide a glimpse into the opportunities for present and future engagements between anthropology and space research. Anthropologists are uniquely suited to take part in these complex, interrelated areas of research because of their holistic training in culture and in situ approaches to studying human behavior.

Environmental

Space is an inhospitable environment. Few places, if any, on Earth require their inhabitants to be isolated from outside contact and remain confined to a small volume of space in order to survive the extreme environmental conditions that characterize space. Scientists and engineers tasked with designing both crewed and un-crewed spaceflight missions are rightly concerned about the extremity of space. The harsh temperatures and diminished gravity of outer space designate which materials are needed to construct satellites, robotics, and space vehicles that are functional and sustainable. The lack of a breathable atmosphere drives the need for providing an artificial, confined environment for living space explorers. The isolated, confined, and extreme (ICE) environment of outer space impacts the construction of space structures, as just noted, as well as influencing the social aspects of space exploration. Astronauts and cosmonauts are selected according to personal characteristics considered desirable and necessary for a successful mission living and working in this ICE environment – traits identified by social scientists.

Several anthropologists have embraced outer space as a source for exploring human perceptions and behaviors regarding their environment. Research in this area, including research from within academia and that applied in industry, brings into question spatial and temporal aspects of environmental adaptation and ecological evolution that result from living in the ICE environment of space (Olson 2010; Palinkas 1990). As crewed missions move beyond low Earth orbit, the impact of the unfamiliar environment that these works address becomes magnified. Combine the challenges of an ICE environment with the time required for a trip to Mars or a near-Earth asteroid, and the risks to human safety and well-being become intensified. It is unknown if feelings of isolation are magnified by the sensory awareness of being unable to see Earth. Likewise, questions remain unanswered as to the impact of being confined in a small volume for longer than a year without the ability to freely enter the surrounding environment. Indeed, the ICE environment, an acronym formalized in American space studies, is central to the challenges faced by space explorers.

Physiological and Psychological

The restrictions imposed on a spaceflight crew are arguably unique to the environment of space. As noted above, most empirical research studies have and continue to focus on the physiological and psychological impacts of space travel. Spaceflight is dangerous, and every aspect involved in traveling outside the safety of Earth’s atmosphere poses a certain amount of risk to the health and well-being of humans. Weightlessness, exposure to radiation, and sensory deprivation living within an artificial habitable environment are all risks of spaceflight that affect the crew. The Human Research Program (HRP) at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) investigates and works to mitigate the risks to human health and performance (NASA 2014). The HRP outlines activities aimed at identifying and addressing the undesirable effects of spaceflight on humans, and within each identified risk, they identify knowledge gaps in need of further research. The opportunities for research presented by the HRP that could benefit from anthropological insight are too numerous to list in this chapter, yet two topics deserve special mention: the development of individualized countermeasures and identifying potential interpersonal conflicts while living in space.

Even though humans have been traveling through space for over fifty years, mitigating the physiological and psychological effects of long-duration, long-distance spaceflight remains a challenge. Space agencies develop countermeasures as a means to mitigate or counteract the undesirable effects of spaceflight on humans (NASA 2011). Countermeasures include medical devices such as medication to counteract space-induced insomnia as well as formal procedures for allowing crewmembers to have free time in order to relieve work-related stress. NASA is currently investigating the potential use of countermeasures that are individualized to the needs of each crewmember. Since the permanent occupation of the International Space Station (ISS), space researchers have remarked on the inadequacy of a one-size-fits-all approach in developing countermeasures due to differences in body composition along with differing levels of compliance. Biological and applied cultural anthropologists with a focus on medicine could possibly add much to their efforts in exploring genetically and behaviorally individualized countermeasures. Lawrence Palinkas (1990, 2003, 2010) is one notable anthropologist conducting research aimed at cross-cultural medicine, but he also addresses the interpersonal dynamics among people living and working in space and how these psychosocial issues evolve over a long period of time.

Organizational and Collaborative

Space exploration affords the opportunity for a greater understanding of human society through the diversity of its explorers and the complexity of the organizations to which they belong. NASA is synonymous with space exploration and provides an excellent example of this complexity. Since the beginning of the Space Race, space exploration has been a highly politicized activity. Policy-driven mandates from Congress shaped the earliest days of the US space program and created an operational paradigm of international involvement that continues today. To this day, the US Congress and Administration remain the most prominent political influences on the planning and implementation of American spaceflight missions. NASA’s strategic plans and goals are directed by American national policy, and in turn direct the design of spacecraft and the establishment of mission objectives. Throughout its history, individuals from the Legislative Branch, Congress, and the Administrative Branch of the US federal government have often played a direct role in conceptualizing the Agency’s designs (Logsdon 2002). More frequently, Congress influences the design of spacecraft by appropriating funds for NASA’s budget.

In addition to the direct political influence on the organization, NASA is a highly complex organization dependent on multi-sited collaboration between its various centers spread throughout the US as well as international cooperation from its partners. In this way, NASA is representative of many large, international organizations. Diane Vaughan’s well-known book The Challenger Launch Decision (Vaughan 1996) provided the first substantial look into the organizational and work culture of NASA. Communication styles, skill sets, and problem-solving abilities differ among astronauts, scientists, and engineers due to the nature of their occupational norms and their regional culture (Clancey 2003; Kanas 2004, 2005; Stuster 2010). However, the complexity of culture, location, and performance as a virtual organization is taken further, in that NASA also works with people and technology located off-planet and in time zones that do not align with the Earth’s rotation. Computer scientist and ethnographer William Clancey (2012) describes distributed teams of scientists working onsite at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and abroad in his book Working on Mars (2012). These scientists and engineers supported the Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) while living on Mars time.

As NASA historian John Logsdon reminds his readers, space exploration has long been the ultimate example of international collaboration (Logsdon 2002). Since the last days of the Apollo program, NASA has built its program around the aim of fostering international relationships, as evident in programs like Spacelab, Space-Shuttle–Mir, and the current ISS. The emphasis on international cooperation is apparent in that a greater number of NASA-sponsored studies focus on international crew relationships than on any other topic except biology. Studies including the frequently cited Shuttle–Mir and ISS research by Nick Kanas (Boyd et al. 2009; Kanas 2004, 2005) and polar and space expedition studies by Palinkas (Palinkas 1990, 2003) highlight the interactions and interpersonal conflicts among international crews. Anthropologist Jack Stuster’s Astronaut Journal Flight Experiment (Stuster 2010) is notable in providing ethnographic insight on this topic and his continuing project will be essential in understanding how crew behavior evolves over time.

The people involved in carrying out future spaceflight missions, as crew or as ground support, are likely to remain multinational, interdisciplinary, and multi-sited for reasons other than political appeal. Scholars and agencies agree that space exploration is more successful when approached through international and interdisciplinary collaboration due to the increased availability of financial resources and diversity in expertise (Boyd et al. 2009; Logsdon 2002; Olson 2010; Pass 2006). Space exploration is costly not just in terms of financial resources but also in respect to the diverse, expert skills and knowledge needed to travel to the stars. The crew composition aboard the ISS continues to be a multinational, multidisciplinary mix of men and women. Therefore, it is plausible that NASA will partner with other space agencies and seek diversity in the expertise of future spaceflight crews to meet the financial, technical, and social challenges of space exploration beyond near-Earth orbit. As crews move out from Earth for longer periods of time, anthropologists are provided with a domain rich in aspects of culture, intersubjectivity, and connectedness. Few, if any, territories of research offer such a complex milieu of sociality and identity coupled with techniques and environment as that which is characteristic of space exploration. Anthropology is the reasonable choice for exploring these issues because of the discipline’s familiarity with addressing complex questions regarding the human condition through synthesizing cultural, material, and biological knowledge.

Technological

In line with the complexity of the organizations involved in space exploration, the development of space technology is a complicated and painstakingly involved process. Engineers and scientists are working towards missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. Over the years, NASA’s approach to technology design has evolved from a purely machine-centered paradigm to a practice more accepting of contemporary human-centered ideas. This shift opens the doors for design anthropologists and ethnographers with expertise in technology design and human–computer interaction to become engaged in space research. The growing opportunities in this area have the potential to increase our knowledge of how humans think about and interact with cutting-edge technologies but also provide engineers with the insight needed to design technologies that are easily adopted and function as desired.

Since the 1990s, design researchers have turned increasingly towards ethnography as a means...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Acknowledgments
• List of contributors
• Introduction: What Is Unexpected Anthropology?
• 1. Otherworldly Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future Contributions of Ethnographers to Space Exploration
• 2. Remembering and Re-Membering: Lived Experience of Military Service Members in Rehabilitation
• 3. Navigating the Boundaries of an Anthropological Education in a Nonprofit World
• 4. The FAIR Money Collective
• 5. On Embedded Action Anthropology and How One Thing Leads to Another by Chance
• 6. Faculty Development as Applied Educational Anthropology
• 7. Islam and Dying in the United States: How Anthropology Contributes to Culturally Competent Care at the End-of-Life
• 8. Time and the Method of the Unexpected
• 9. Ethnographic Explorations of Intellectual Property Claims to Yoga: A Series of Unexpected Events
• 10. Surviving Academia 2.0: Lessons Learned from Practicing Hybrid Anthropology
• Conclusion: The Unexpected and the Future of Anthropology
• Index