General
1.1 In 2014, the construction industry in the United Kingdom contributed ÂŁ103 billion to economic output, 6.5% of the total gross value added of the economy.1 This represents a rise of 9.5% in real terms on 2013: the largest increase since at least 1990. In the same period, construction accounted for 2.1 million jobs or 6.3% of all jobs. There can be no doubt as to the continued and growing importance of the construction industry to the UK economy. Outside these shores, the standard form JCT, NEC3 and FIDIC contracts remain the contracts of choice, often being subject to the laws of England and Wales. Contractors based in the United Kingdom undertake projects across the world: it is not possible to determine with any accuracy the contribution to the global economy, but it is clear that the contribution is both substantial and significant.
1.2 This raises the question as to what the construction industry comprises. Broadly speaking the market can be divided into housing, infrastructure, industrial and commercial sectors, with individual projects being undertaken on a private, public or public/private basis. Yet, this is a simplistic division as construction projects touch on every aspect of daily life, from the properties in which we live and work; the infrastructure (both in terms of plant and services) that provides us with water, electricity and gas; the transport networks (road, rail, airports, sea ports) that we use for work and pleasure and which ferry to our doors that which we consume: each involves construction and a construction contract. Everything in the built environment around us and more or less everything we use in daily life at some point would have made use of something built by the UK construction industry. Against that background, the risks that parties to construction contracts face, the ramifications of breach or failure; and identifying where the insuring obligations fall are matters that are often taken for granted or not analysed with sufficient detail until something goes awry.
1.3 As no two construction projects are ever the same, it is necessary to consider the individual characteristics of each project and to consider the risks at each stage of the process. Even on the most straightforward project where defects arise there is usually a debate as to whether the same is due to an error in design or workmanship and, accordingly, the identity of the âproperâ defendant. In turn, that requires a potential claimant to identify the causative breach. This inevitably leads to the question of whether the putative defendant is insured in respect of his act or omission. The stark reality is that insurance and construction contracts go together hand-in-hand.
1.4 Broadly speaking, there are two categories of insurance effected in relation to construction projects as between employer and contractor:
- (1) liability insurance, for example public liability insurance and employerâs liability arising from claims for loss or damage;
- (2) property insurance, for example, insurance of the contract works and any material, equipment and machinery associated with it.
1.5 In addition, the professional teams, and the building construction teams engaged in the design and construction of the project will take out appropriate professional indemnity insurance to cover their design liabilities and risk of carrying out negligent design whether in contract, tort, common law or statutory liabilities.
1.6 As between contractor and employer, the majority of building and engineering contracts deal with insurance matters on a broadly similar basis. The contractor is generally responsible for loss or damage to the contract works during the construction period and is responsible for repairing or reinstating them in the event of loss or damage. The contractor is usually obliged to insure the works to the satisfaction of the employer, very often using a policy which is held in the joint names of both the contractor and the employer. In addition, the employer needs to be protected against claims arising against the contractor, either by the contractorâs employees or by third parties, so, to that end, the contractor usually indemnifies the employer under the contract against such claims arising. Consequently, the contractor frequently arranges the employerâs liability and public liability insurance.
1.7 However, on very large projects, the practice is often reversed and it is often the employer who insures in the joint names of the employer and the contractor (there are normally cost savings and reduced insurance premiums because of the employerâs status). Sometimes this reversal of positions is taken into larger building contracts and, in such cases, it is not unusual to find the employer being responsible for effecting and maintaining the insurances.
Valuation methods
1.8 In order to identify the form of contract most suited to a particular project, it is necessary to consider the method of procurement that is to be adopted by the employer and to identify and assess the options and risks associated with each.
Lump Sum contracts
1.9 In this form, the contractor agrees a fixed price to execute certain defined building works. The figure is usually arrived at by way of the bill of quantities and is agreed at the time of contract formulation when the work is also commenced. All the main forms of building contract are considered to be lump sum contracts, even though they contain provisions for the adjustment of the sum for such things as fluctuations and variations. This is because the contractor agrees to undertake the defined contract works for a fixed price.
Measurement Contracts
1.10 The contract sum for a measurement contract (also known as a re-measurement contract) is not finalised until the project is completed. The process involves the employer (usually through his consultants) preparing as part of the tender documents a bill of quantities where quantities are estimated rather than finalised. The contractor prices against each item in the bill, providing a unit rate in respect of each bill item. During the project the actual quantity of works in respect of each item in the bill is measured and the quantity agreed, to which the contractual rate is applied to build up the final contract value. Accordingly, at the outset there is a contract sum that is not a finalised figure and is subject to the works being re-measured at completion. As such, by definition it cannot be a lump sum contract.
1.11 Where works are instructed in respect of which there is no applicable rate, the contractor can build up new rates or âstar ratesâ, which will then be used in the valuation of the works.
Cost Contracts
1.12 With a cost contract there is no binding, pre-agreed sum contract sum. The contractor is entitled to be paid whatever the work(s) actually cost(s), together with an additional payment normally called a management fee, which should cover its profit and overheads. An example is the JCT Prime Cost Contract 2011. This form of contract is often adopted where the employer requires an early start on site such that there is insufficient opportunity to prepare a detailed design and bill of quantities against which a contractor can price.
1.13 There are four common variations:
- (1) Cost plus a percentage: the contractor is paid the actual cost of work reasonably incurred, plus a fee which is a percentage of the actual cost.
- (2) Cost plus fixed fee: the fee is a fixed lump sum and so the contractor has an incentive to complete.
- (3) Cost plus fluctuating fee: an estimate of the total cost is made and the fee varies according to actual cost.
- (4) Target cost based on the bill of quantities and compared with actual adjusted target cost. If the actual cost shows a saving (or an increase), the fee is increased (or reduced) appropriately.