Group Work in Schools

Bradley T. Erford, Bradley T. Erford

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781317525271
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Bildung
• Subtopic: Bildungspsychologie

School counselors are often the only employees in school settings with any formal education in group work, and yet their training is typically a general course on how to run groups. Group Work in Schools provides an alternative training model; one that presents exactly what counselors need to know in order to successfully implement task-driven, psychoeducational, and counseling/psychotherapy groups in any educational setting. Additions to this newly updated second edition include: discussion topics, activities, case examples, integrated CACREP standards and learning outcomes, as well as an overall update to reflect the most recent research and knowledge.

Part 1

Foundations of Group Work

1 The Value of Group Work

Functional Group Models and Historical Perspectives

Bradley T. Erford, Ann Vernon, and Darcie Davis-Gage

Preview

This initial chapter provides a tour through the essential historical and foundational issues of group work, leading the reader to appreciate the value of these approaches. To understand group work models, leaders need to consider model characteristics, subtypes, stages, and classic role and function of the leader. This chapter presents an overview of the four main types of group formats categorized by the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW): task groups, psychoeducational groups, counseling groups and psychotherapy groups.

Defining Group Work

Throughout time, humans have naturally gathered together in groups for the purpose of ensuring their survival and development. Most individuals spend a considerable amount of time in groups for social, professional, religious, and other purposes. But, what exactly defines a group? Do specific parameters exist? Researchers in the field have proposed varying descriptions to categorize a group’s unique characteristics. Charles Cooley defined the primary group concept as a face-to-face encounter between individuals, involving intimate cooperation. Gladding (2015) expanded on these concepts by defining a group as two or more individuals who meet interdependently, with the awareness that each belongs for the purpose of achieving mutually set goals.

Gladding’s (2015) depiction of groups as functional organisms led to his description of group work, characterized as the application of knowledge and skill in group facilitation to assist members in reaching their mutual goals. These goals include work or education-related tasks, personal development, problem solving, and the remediation of disorders. These goals can be accomplished through different procedures, processes, and approaches. The Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW, 2007) categorized group work into four functional approaches and this book adheres to this categorization scheme.

Functional Group Models

ASGW (2007) categorized various functional types of group work experiences as task groups, psychoeducational groups, counseling groups, and psychotherapy groups. But how does a group leader know which type of group model to use? Professional school counselors determine which type of group model to implement depending upon the structure and goals of the group. Each of these group models will be discussed in relation to characteristics, subtypes, stages and the role and function of the leader, and each of these group work types will be discussed in greater depth within the school context in Chapters 11–13.

Task Groups

Task groups occur in a variety of settings from schools and mental health agencies to large businesses and corporations. Task groups are designed around accomplishing a specific goal. Task groups use principles of group dynamics and incorporate such methods as collaboration, problem solving, and team-building exercises to reach goals. The focus is not on changing people, but upon completing the task at hand in an efficient and effective manner. For example, if a principal wanted to address the complex problems of students at risk of academic failure from a systemic, multidisciplinary perspective, the principal may appoint members of a task group to identify and then establish authentic partnerships with community and governmental organizations. Another example of a task group includes student assistance teams, which meet to discuss student concerns and problem solve about how best to resolve student issues.

Hulse-Killacky, Killacky, & Donigian (2001) identified elements of successful task groups, including having well-defined goals and purposes, addressing and processing conflicts between members, blending content and process, and encouraging members to give and receive feedback as well as reflect on their work as a group. Leaders of task groups should have a clear purpose, take time to build rapport, encourage members to be reflective and active, and pay attention to the here and now.

Characteristics of Task Groups

Task groups can vary greatly in size, but often function more effectively if there are fewer than 12 people to avoid problems with subgrouping. With younger school-aged children, task groups of 6–8 students often work best. Task groups also vary in duration and the number of sessions, and are usually dependent upon accomplishing the identified goal. Once the goal is accomplished, the group generally disbands, unless another task is identified. Task group members also tend to have contact with each other outside the group, which is one of the unique characteristics of task groups not often encountered in counseling or psychotherapy groups.

Types of Task Groups

There are as many different types of task groups as there are tasks. Examples of task groups in schools include choosing officers for a club or organization, planning a fund-raising event or social function, or completing school tasks. ASGW standards identified committees, task forces, and learning groups as types of task groups. For example, elementary students can form task groups to work on a social studies project. Upon completion, students can be taught to evaluate how well they worked together, reflecting on roles each student played and what, if anything, interfered with them functioning well as a group. Age-appropriate formats can be devised using typical process observer criteria such as:

(a)	What role did you play in the group? Were you a leader or a follower?
(b)	How successful was the group in completing the task?
(c)	If you did not complete the task, what prevented you from completing it?
(d)	If you worked as a group again, how could you work more effectively?

Questions such as these can be adapted and expanded upon depending on the age of the group members. At times it is also effective to assign one or two students to be process observers and give feedback to the rest of the group members.

Role and Function of the Leader in Task Groups

The leaders of task groups tend to take on the role of process consultant (Kottler & Englar-Carlson, 2009). A task group leader’s main goal is to help the group complete a task or reach a goal. This is best facilitated when a leader is able to strike a balance between content and process, while still accomplishing the task at hand in a timely manner. Leaders of task groups need to be able to facilitate communication and keep the group focused on the goals of the group. When a student is the leader of the task group, that student may struggle with the content/process facilitation and may need more assistance from a teacher or professional school counselor.

Stages of Task Groups

Hulse-Killacky, Kraus, and Schumacher (1999) described a conceptual framework a group leader can use when conducting task groups. Within this framework the authors identified three stages: a warming-up period, followed by a working stage, and ending with termination of the group. Although these phases may be present in other types of groups such as psychoeducational or counseling groups, they seem to be particularly applicable to task or work groups. Using these stages allows trust and cohesion to form, which will in turn facilitate a more productive task group.

During the first stage, Hulse-Killacky et al. (1999) stressed that members should introduce themselves to one another and identify the task and purpose of the group. The second stage includes working on accomplishing the identified task while also developing an understanding of how members will work together. During this phase, it is important for the leader to work within the here-and-now context while emphasizing direct communication and feedback between members. In order to achieve a balance between content and process, it may also be helpful for the leader to pay attention to how members are interacting and not overemphasize completion of the task. The final stage involves bringing the group to completion, which is best accomplished by having members reflect on the progress as well as the process of the group. Hulse-Killacky et al. (1999) emphasized that leaders should maintain a balance of content and process throughout all stages, because without this balance, groups risk becoming stagnant and unproductive.

Within a school setting and when using task groups with students, there may be some variation in these stages. For example, the teacher or professional school counselor will most likely structure some rapport-building during the warming-up stage and may identify the task and give specific instructions for the working stage. If the task groups are operating within a classroom and there are multiple groups, the degree to which the teacher or counselor will be a more active facilitator will depend on the age of the students or the nature of the task. Experience has shown that children as young as age 7 years can be taught about group roles and factors that facilitate and impede group process, as well as learn to give and receive feedback about the group experience.

Some Final Comments on Task Groups

Task groups are designed around accomplishment of a certain task and are an effective way of accomplishing that task because the group members bring various perspectives and multiple sources of energy and expertise together to accomplish their goals. By employing various group principles, leaders can help task groups be more productive and complete their goals in a timely manner. Although personal change and growth usually do not occur in task groups, if task groups are properly facilitated, members may leave the group with a better understanding of group dynamics as well as possibly gaining insight into their individual interpersonal skills. In the school setting, task groups are an exceptionally good way to educate young people about group roles and group dynamics that will facilitate their group participation in the present as well as the future. Task groups are covered in much greater detail in Chapter 11.

Psychoeducational Groups

Psychoeducational groups were originally developed for use in schools, but are also increasingly used in mental health agencies, hospitals, social service agencies, and universities. These groups are more structured than counseling or psychotherapy groups, emphasizing skill development through various nonthreatening skill-building exercises, but at the same time encouraging discussion, sharing, and feedback among members (Corey, Corey, Callahan, & Russell, 2014). The goal of psychoeducational group work is to prevent psychological disturbance by increasing self-awareness, knowledge, and skills about specific develop mentally relevant issues. The fact that psychoeducational groups can be preventive, growth-oriented, or remedial makes for a very versatile group model. The psychoeducation group model is commonly used in PK-12 comprehensive developmental school counseling programs, whether in small groups to address study or social skills, or large group classroom guidance to address educational planning or career developmental goals.

Characteristics of Psychoeducational Groups

Psychoeducational groups are appropriate for all age groups and can be adapted to the specific needs of group members. In the school setting, they may be called guidance groups and are “more structured, issue specific, and leader directed” (Aasheim & Niemann, 2006, p. 269). Psychoeducational groups serve several purposes, including giving information, encouraging members to share common experiences, teaching participants problem-solving skills, and helping them create their own support systems outside of the group setting. The focus is both educational and therapeutic in that information about the specific topic is shared and self-development is emphasized (Ivey, Pedersen, & Ivey, 2001).

Types of Psychoeducational Groups

Aasheim and Niemann (2006) identified three types of psychoeducational groups: (a) education groups which focus on presenting new information and concepts, (b) skills training groups that are generally experiential and emphasize skill acquisition, and (c) self-understanding groups that are similar to counseling groups but focus less on self-disclosure and more on building self-confidence by giving feedback about members’ behavior and how it affects others. This latter type of group is more appropriate for adolescents than for children, although it could be beneficial with elementary-aged children, depending on their maturity and the group composition.

Psychoeducational groups are typically centered on a particular topic and have been widely used to address broad-ranging issues such as stress management, assertion, interpersonal skills, substance abuse, eating disorders, anger, loss, self-esteem, domestic violence, responsible sexual behavior, healthy choices, and diversity awareness, among many others. Other topics applicable in a school setting include improving study skills, getting along with friends, career decision-making, or dealing with family changes. Regardless of the type of group, growth is acquired through knowledge. This knowledge may be presented through discussions, presentations, videos, computer-assisted programs, or activities/exercises. Depending on the age level, games, simulations, role playing, and worksheets designed to convey information and stimulate discussion may also be used.

Role and Function of the Leader in Psychoeducational Groups

Because this type of group is based on presenting knowledge and helping members change perceptions, the leader needs to have expertise in the content area as well as group facilitation skills. It is also imperative that the group leader create a safe environment so that students will feel comfortable sharing feelings and engaging in self-disclosure. Because this type of group is more structured than psychotherapy or counseling groups, the leader must engage in careful planning that includes having a well-designed curriculum that will allow sufficient time for group members to process and discuss the information presented.

The leader should also be adept at juggling content as well as process, and at the same time be sensitive to when group members are ready to address various issues and engage in certain activities. Planning is essential in psychoeducational groups, including planning for session length, frequency, number of sessions, content, and follow-up sessions. Although these factors may vary due to member age and setting, typically groups in a high-school setting last 45–60 minutes and meet once a week, whereas with elementary students, 30–45 minutes is sufficient. The number of sessions varies widely depending on the topic and depth of coverage, but the average is 6–12 sessions. The optimal number of members in a psychoeducational group also varies widely, but with children and adolescents, 6–10 members is the ideal composition in order to facilitate discussion and feedback. Classroom guidance lessons are frequently conducted with 20–30 students, but such large groups allow for less discussion, feedback, and individualized attention.

It is also helpful for the leader of a psychoeducational group to help members clarify what they want from the group and translate these vague goals into specific, measurable objectives. Asking students to write down their goals or write a description of what they hope to get from the group experience can help. Having members complete contracts that identify specific, realistic, and attainable goals is also a helpful strategy.

Stages of a Psychoeducational Group

The beginning and closing stages are often shorter in psychoeducational groups than in counseling or psychotherapy groups, but the leader nevertheless has to plan for these stages. The middle stage includes delivery of content, which may be through a short lecture or a variety of experientially based activities that introduce the topic and engage members in learning more about the topic. In this stage, the leader’s job is to shift between giving information and facilitating discussion, which helps members learn the information and apply it to their own lives. All too often inexperienced leaders focus too much on providing information and lose sight of the group process, or leaders allow too much sharing and don’t have enough information. A good balance of information and interaction is essential.

Some Final Comments on Psychoeducational Groups

The ASGW Best Practices Guidelines (2007) state that psychoeducational groups stress growth through knowledge. Through this approach, students of all ages can benefit from the learning and support that this type of group model offers and apply what they learned to their real-life situations. Psychoeducational groups have extensive applicability in schools because of the variety of topics that can be introduced to help students acquire knowledge and skills that will enhance their development. Group leaders can structure age-appropriate activities that stimulate discussion and application of concepts, thus increasing children’s and adolescents’ ability to deal with present and future concerns. Leaders of psychoeducational groups walk a fine line between presenting information and facilitating the group process that encourages sharing and self-disclosure, which are essential to an effective group. Psychoeducational group approaches are covered in much greater deta...