Assessing Children with Specific Learning Difficulties

A teacher's practical guide

Gavin Reid, Gad Elbeheri, John Everatt

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2015
• Print ISBN: 9780415670272
• eBook ISBN: 9781317437796
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

This comprehensive book provides all the information that practitioners need to know about assessment in relation to their pupils with Specific Learning Difficulties. The why, how and what of assessment is addressed, whilst the link between assessment and intervention is also a key focus.

Looking at the full range of Specific Learning Difficulties, this book provides practical guidance on implementing strategies that are tried and tested for use in any classroom, whilst also acknowledging that assessment is a process involving other professionals and parents. Addressing issues and topics common in inclusive classrooms around the world, key topics covered include:

• Specific Learning Difficulties in context
• Teacher Assessment in literacy, numeracy and movement
• Motor development and co-ordination
• Attention factors in learning
• The key issues on learning differences
• Self-esteem and emotional literacy
• How to enhance skills and the self-sufficiency of teachers

Assessing Children with Specific Learning Difficulties will be an invaluable guide for classroom teachers, learning support departments, psychologists and other professionals.

Chapter 1
SpLD in context

Pointers for practice

Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD)

The term ‘specific learning difficulties’ refers to children who experience a range of challenges in one or more of the following areas: literacy, numeracy, writing, movement and attention. It can also include other aspects of learning that may prevent them from reaching their potential. In some children these challenges can be very significant and provide a real barrier for learners, thus preventing them from effectively accessing the curriculum. The difficulties range from mild to severe.

There is a range of labels that can be used to describe individual aspects of SpLD and many of these labels can show overlapping characteristics. This is referred to as co-morbidity or co-occurrence. The most popular of these labels include dyslexia, dyspraxia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that co-morbidity may be highly prevalent (Bishop and Snowling, 2004) and, in fact, the norm rather than the exception.

The overlap and continuum

As indicated above, SpLDs can be seen within a continuum and there is likely to be some overlap between several of these. It is not unusual for dyslexia, dyspraxia and, to a certain extent, ADHD to share some of common factors. Before discussing the value or otherwise of the term ‘co-morbidity’ it will be beneficial to briefly describe the individual labels within ‘specific learning difficulties’ which are in popular use.

Dyslexia

A definition of dyslexia is shown below.

Dyslexia is a processing difference experienced by people of all ages, often characterized by difficulties in literacy, it can affect other cognitive areas such as memory, speed of processing, time management, co-ordination and directional aspects. There may be visual and phonological difficulties and there is usually some discrepancy in performances in different areas of learning. It is important that the individual differences and learning styles are acknowledged since these will impact on the outcome of learning and assessment. It is also important to consider the learning and work context as the nature of the difficulties associated with dyslexia may well be more pronounced in some learning situations. (Reid, 2009)

This is a broad definition and in view of the range of challenges that can be associated with dyslexia this is one of the appeals of this definition. Some specific early indicators of dyslexia are shown below:

• working memory difficulties (forgetfulness)
• language and speech difficulty
• difficulty forming letters
• difficulty remembering letters of the alphabet and the sequence
• history of dyslexia in the family
• co-ordination difficulties e.g. bumping into tables and chairs (can also be a sign of dyspraxia)
• difficulty with tasks which require fine motor skills such as tying shoelaces (can also be sign of dyspraxia)
• reluctance to concentrate on a task for a reasonable period of time (can also be a sign of attention difficulties)
• confusing words which sound similar
• reluctance to go to school
• signs of not enjoying school
• reluctance to read
• difficulty learning words and letters
• difficulty with phonics (sounds)
• general co-ordination difficulties (can also be sign of dyspraxia)
• losing items
• difficulty forming letters
• difficulty copying
• difficulty colouring
• poor organisation of materials.

Dyspraxia

Dyspraxia is a motor/co-ordination difficulty. It can be seen within a continuum from mild to severe and can affect fine motor activities such as pencil grip and gross motor activities such as movement and balance. Portwood (1999) describes dyspraxia as ‘motor difficulties caused by perceptual problems, especially visual-motor and kinesthetic motor difficulties’.

The definition of dyspraxia provided by the Dyspraxia Trust in England is an ‘impairment or immaturity in the organisation of movement which leads to associated problems with language, perception and thought’ (Dyspraxia Trust, 2001).

Children with dyspraxia can have difficulties with:

• gross motor skills – balance, co-ordination
• co-ordination
• judging force in ball throwing
• balance/posture
• running, hopping and jumping
• fastening buttons and tying laces
• kinaesthetic memory
• using two hands simultaneously
• spatial awareness and directional awareness.

In secondary school they may also experience difficulties with:

• copying and reading diagrams
• recalling detailed instructions
• reading and writing
• copying from board
• using classroom equipment e.g. rulers, compass, scissors
• following timetables
• finding way round school and also in some subjects such as physical education.

Children with dyspraxia can also have difficulties with:

• speech and language
• social skills
• attention/concentration.

Some children with dyspraxia may also show signs of dysgraphia, although dysgraphia can exist on its own. Some of the characteristics of dysgraphia include:

• letter inconsistencies
• mixture of upper and lower case
• irregular letter size and shapes
• unfinished letters
• often a reluctant writer
• poor visual perception
• poor fine motor skills.

With dysgraphia, therefore, it is important to consider the following:

• hand dominance
• pencil grip
• posture
• paper position
• pressure on paper
• wrist movement
• letter formation
• left-to-right orientation
• reversals of letters
• spacing
• letter size, formation consistency
• style – joins in letters
• speed
• fatigue factors.

Some of the difficulties described above relate to skills that are necessary for a range of everyday learning tasks and these difficulties can affect attention, memory and reading development. This means that although dyspraxia may be the primary difficulty in some cases there can be secondary indicators of dyslexia or attention difficulties.

Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia is a condition that affects the ability to acquire arithmetical skills. Dyscalculic learners will usually have difficulty understanding simple number concepts, lack an intuitive grasp of numbers and have problems learning number facts and procedures. Even if they produce a correct answer or use a correct method, they may do so mechanically and without confidence (DfES, 2001).

Dr Steve Chinn, a prolific author and recognised expert in dyscalculia, suggests in relation to identifying dyscalculia as a basic indicator that the child will be performing below expectations. The difficulties that can be noted include:

• problems understanding the value of numbers
• problems understanding the relationship between numbers, e.g. nine is one less than ten
• being able to rapidly recall basic number facts
• may recall mathematical facts but with no real understanding.

Henderson, Came and Brough (2003) indicate that the factors that need to be considered in developing and assessment protocol for dyscalculia include:

• the literacy challenges in maths
• organisation and presentation of work
• speed of working
• memory and sequencing
• anxiety and fear of maths
• learning basic facts
• directional confusion and sequencing difficulties
• thinking and learning styles (inchworms and grasshoppers, Chinn, 2009).

It seems that the language of maths is an important factor; if this is not clearly explained to the child then they will fail in the maths task and soon maths demoralisation will occur and learned helplessness. This is when the fear of maths sets in.

Henderson, Came and Brough (2003) suggest a phonic approach is useful, as in Table 1.1.

Wardrop (2014, personal communication) also adopts this approach and utilises the principles and the practices of the Orton–Gillingham approach.

A similar planning strategy as shown in the example above can be applied to memory in maths – that is, what to look for and how to help. This also provides a good example of the link between assessment and teaching which has been a central point in this chapter.

Table 1.1 Phonics and maths

What to look out for	How to help
Pronunciation and spelling of complex maths words such as ‘isosceles triangle’ can cause problems.	Teach spelling of the maths words in a multi-sensory way, e.g. trace, colour significant parts of the word or similar letter patterns. Take care to articulate the maths words clearly, e.g. the difference between 40 and 14.
Poor visual recognition of the word and poor recognition of the correct spellings.	Learn the tricky words visually. Recognise the shape of the word and draw the outline of a word.
Complex mathematical vocabulary within a topic is often difficult to read.	Teach decoding of long mathematical words through syllable work. Make a word wall of difficult topic words.
Mathematical words are often difficult to spell, e.g. horizontal, perpendicular, eight or ate.	Teach words in groups or chunks working on the syllables or similar letter patterns in word families.
Slow in writing common words and confusion with little words.	Allow more time for recording work, copying from the board etc. Clearly display common little words.
When doing an investigation the pupil may have sequencing difficulties, which affect the way they record a calculation. The pupil will often forget the first step of the method.	Talk through the method and encourage them to note down each step as they work through their investigation.

Attention deficit disorders (ADD and ADHD)

There has been considerable debate regarding the concept of attention disorders. A number of perspectives can be noted ranging from the medical and educational to the social.

The most widely accepted guidance on ADHD can be seen in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V, 2013¹). This indicates that: ‘ADHD is characterized by a pattern of behavior, present in multiple settings (e.g., school and home), that can result in performance issues in social, educational, or work settings.’

As in its predecessor, DSM-IV, symptoms are divided into two categories of inattention, and hyperactivity and impulsivity that include behaviours like failure to pay close attention to details, difficulty organising tasks and activities, excessive talking, fidgeting, or an inability to remain seated in appropriate situations.

Children must have at least six symptoms from either (or both) the inattention group of criteria and the hyperactivity and impulsivity criteria, while older adolescents and adults (over age 17 years) must present with five.

The nine inattentive symptoms are:

• often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or during other activities (e.g. overlooks or misses details, work is inaccurate);
• often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities (e.g. has difficulty remaining focused during lectures, conversations, or lengthy reading);
• often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly (e.g. mind seems elsewhere, even in the absence of any obvious distraction);
• often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish school work, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g. starts tasks but quickly loses focus and is easily sidetracked);
• often has difficulty organising tasks and activities (e.g. difficulty managing sequential tasks; difficulty keeping materials and belongings in order; messy, disorganised work; has poor time management; fails to meet deadlines);
• often avoids or is re...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of figures and tables
• About the authors
• Introduction
• 1 SpLD in context: pointers for practice
• 2 The assessment process
• 3 Teacher assessment: literacy
• 4 Numeracy: mathematics learning difficulties
• 5 Teacher assessment: movement
• 6 Behavioural problems: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and emotional and behavioural disorders
• 7 Assessment and the role of the educational psychologist
• 8 Recognising and dealing with self-esteem, motivation and emotional needs
• 9 Identifying and utilising learning preferences and styles
• 10 Higher education and the workplace
• 11 Developing an assessment framework
• 12 Sources and resources for assessment
• References
• Index