Public Transport

Its Planning, Management and Operation

Peter R. White

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781138938229
• eBook ISBN: 9781317383178
• Edition: 6
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Urban Planning & Landscaping
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Public Transport provides an accessible introductory text to the field of public transport systems, covering bus, coach, rail, metro, domestic air and taxi modes. The market structure is set out, together with data collection methods. The technology of bus and rail systems is introduced with particular reference to peak capacity and energy consumption. An analysis of cost structures and costing methods leads into a review of pricing concepts and their application. In addition to issues related to urban systems, specific chapters cover rural public transport and the long-distance sector. A concluding chapter examines long-run policy issues, such as likely population changes and scope for substitution of travel. The primary context taken is that of the British Isles, drawing extensively on data such as the National Travel Survey in England. However, the principles and findings are also broadly applicable to countries of similar per capita income and population density.

This sixth edition introduces a new chapter on data collection and survey methods for public transport systems in addition to a general update of the text to reflect the latest statistical evidence, research findings and policy changes. Public Transport is an essential textbook for both students in transport and those in related fields. This is an invaluable resource for transport planners in local authorities and consultancies.

1 Organisation and control of transport in the British Isles

Within this chapter the organisations and legislation relevant to public transport in the British Isles are outlined. The situation described is that applying at January 2016. It should be stressed that structures of organisation and regulation are subject to frequent change, and the aim of this chapter is therefore to provide a general overview, in particular so that the reader can relate statistics described in later chapters to the structure under which they were collected and published. Some indications of recent and probable future changes are also given, but it is likely that some details shown will have changed by the time this text is being read. The reader is advised to consult relevant government websites (notably www.gov.uk/dft), and publications such as Local Transport Today to update the picture. The overall framework is that provided under the European Union – influencing, for example, the structures for railway finances, and safety regulation. Coverage is given of the structure in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and of the Irish Republic. The term ‘Great Britain’ when used separately refers to the sum of England, Scotland and Wales.

Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Central government

Following devolution of powers to the Scottish Parliament, the Northern Ireland Assembly and the Welsh and Greater London Assemblies, considerable variation exists between different regions of the United Kingdom. Below, the situation applicable in GB and England as a whole is described first, followed by national and regional variations.

Overall responsibility for transport policy is placed under the Department for Transport (DfT), whose statistical publications are quoted extensively in this book. Some related local government and planning functions (such as parking standards in local planning) are placed under the Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG). The DfT’s scope covers all modes, including shipping and aviation for which it retains overall responsibility despite devolution of many road and rail powers to other bodies.

Both Departments are headed by a Secretary of State, with cabinet rank, assisted by several Ministers of State. Their power is exercised directly in England, and also within Wales and Scotland, where specific powers are not held by the national governments. The Scottish Government is empowered through separately-determined legislation on certain aspects, such as the Transport (Scotland) Act 2005. The self-governing Channel Islands and Isle of Man determine their own local policies, but are strongly influenced by central government in aviation and shipping policy.

The DfT determines overall policy, but management of assets still in the public sector is mainly exercised through agencies, such as Highways England (HE), responsible for the construction and maintenance of the trunk road and motorway network, whose role has been broadened to cover management of the system use – for example, through the introduction of bus and coach priority lanes. Others include the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA), responsible for annual inspection and other safety controls over road vehicles.

Within the DfT, other Minister(s) and Parliamentary Under Secretaries assist the Secretary of State. These responsibilities are not rigidly determined by law, and may vary as individual appointments change, but typically comprise posts covering public transport, transport in London, national policy on roads and traffic, and aviation and shipping. The civil service staff of the Department is headed by a Permanent Secretary, responsible to whom are various Directors General, each in turn responsible for a specialist sector (whose definitions and responsibilities change from time to time).

Some other government departments also have substantial influence on transport policy. The Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy (DfBE&IS) is involved in certain aspects of industrial strategy, and the operation of competition policy, exercised through the Competition and Markets Authority (C&MA) established in April 2014, absorbing the formerly separate Competition Commission, and the Office of Fair Trading (OFT). This aspect has gained increasing importance in the transport sector since deregulation of local bus services. The Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) is of growing importance, especially in setting out environmental policies which have substantial effects on the transport sector.

The Treasury is responsible for overall allocation of expenditures between departments and fiscal policy such as fuel duty. The role of financial control has become particularly strong in the transport sector in recent years (especially through reductions in funding to local authorities), and tends to determine other aspects of policy.

Local government

Two main types of structure exist:

(a) Single-tier, or ‘unitary’, authorities. These cover all of Wales and Scotland, and some parts of England. They have responsibility for all functions below national or regional level. Examples include Cardiff, Edinburgh, Plymouth and East Yorkshire.

(b) Traditional ‘two-tier’ authorities. Most parts of England are placed under county councils (sometimes known as the ‘shires’). Examples include Surrey and Norfolk.

Despite creation of some further unitary authorities in England (for example, Cornwall), a mixed pattern is likely to remain.

Both unitaries and counties are highway and transportation authorities, being directly responsible for local road maintenance and construction (apart from motorways and trunk roads, which are placed under Highways England or equivalent bodies within Wales and Scotland). They provide support for non-commercial bus services, usually through seeking tenders for such operations. They have a role in the promotion of public transport which may involve provision of comprehensive timetable information. As education authorities, they may spend large sums on school transport (often exceeding direct support to public transport), in order to fulfil their statutory duties stemming originally from the Education Act of 1944 (discussed further in Chapter 10). A positive role in stimulating rail use is often adopted, albeit rarely with major responsibility for meeting operating losses, but including, for example, re-opening of rural stations.

Within the two-tier system, the districts are typically of 50,000 to 200,000 population, and each is based on a small to medium-sized town, but also including some larger centres. Discretionary powers exist to fund additional categories of concessionary travel, such as child fares, or extending eligibility of the older persons’ concession to include the morning peak, but the main funding for disabled and older persons’ concessions is handled at county or unitary level. Parking is generally managed at district level. Districts are also the licensing bodies for taxis and private hire cars.

The remaining bus operations in public ownership are owned by unitary or district councils. Counties do not operate services directly (except, in a few cases, some school buses, for example in Norfolk).

Under the Road Traffic Act 1991, districts or unitaries may also create Special Parking Areas (SPAs), in which they take over responsibility for on-street parking control from wardens controlled by the police. From July 1994, this power has been used by all London Boroughs, and has been applied in many urban areas outside London.

The structure within England

Within the major conurbations in England a mixed system of local government exists. In the six metropolitan regions (West Midlands, Merseyside, Greater Manchester, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear) local government is provided through metropolitan district councils (36 in all), which for many years after abolition of the former Metropolitan Counties in 1986 undertook almost all highways and planning functions. Under the Transport Act 1968, Passenger Transport Authorities (PTAs) were set up in the same six conurbations. These took over the existing municipal bus operators, and also acquired a general responsibility for the integration and planning of public transport as a whole in their areas. Following abolition of the metropolitan counties in 1986, the PTAs became bodies composed of elected members from district councils in their areas. They are also dependent upon transfers from district budgets for their financing, together with central government grants. They gained wider powers under the Local Transport Act 2008, being renamed ‘Integrated Transport Authorities’ (ITAs).

Within each ITA area, day-to-day responsibility for its public transport role was placed upon the Passenger Transport Executive (PTE), a body of professional managers. The PTEs are responsible for provision of tendered bus services and concessionary fares. They also play a major role in providing comprehensive passenger information systems, provision of school transport, co-ordinated ticketing arrangements (such as multi-operator travelcards), infrastructure investment (notably interchanges) and the planning, construction and financing of light rail systems such as those in Manchester and Sheffield.

A similar body SPT (Strathclyde Partnership for Transport) covers equivalent functions in Strathclyde, the largest of the Scottish conurbations, covering Glasgow and the surrounding region. It also operates a small underground railway. One other ITA, Tyne and Wear, runs a larger system, the local Metro.

The fragmented system of government in the larger metropolitan areas was recognised in reforms which have enabled the establishment of Combined Authorities (CAs), bringing together a wide range of local authority functions in transport and planning, covering similar areas to the former metropolitan counties. Examples include West Yorkshire and Tyne and Wear. In Greater Manchester, Transport for Greater Manchester (TfGM) has been established, similar in some respects to Transport for London (TfL) (see below), but with far more limited powers, as bus services in the region remain deregulated. CAs are also being established in regions wholly outwith the original six major conurbations in England. The Cities and Local Government Devolution Act 2016 enables the Secretary of State for Transport to create statutory ‘Sub-National Transport Bodies’ (STBs) with transport powers, the first being Transport for the North (TfN). It also reforms legislation regarding CAs, including provisions for areas which are not contiguous being able to form a CA – for example, York joining the West Yorkshire CA. Lower-tier authorities may also join a CA, even if their upper-tier authority is not a member. A review of implications is provided by Bonar (2015). Where a directly-elected local mayor is in place then powers may also be granted for bus franchising (although in the case of Cornwall, this has already been proposed without such a requirement). The Bus Services Bill published in 2016 augments these provisions.

The devolved regions and nations

In London, the Greater London Authority (GLA), together with the directly-elected Mayor, controls strategic transport and planning policy, with a lower tier of some 32 London Boroughs (LBs) (plus the Corporation of the City of London) responsible for functions such as parking and traffic management. Since its establishment in 2000, the incumbent Mayor has also held the post of chair of Transport for London (TfL), which controls most aspects of public transport, including buses, the Underground, taxis and river services. To a growing extent it is involved in provision of surface rail transport, notably through the Overground concession, forthcoming Crossrail operations, and proposals to take over other surface rail operations within its area as franchises are renewed. It acts as the licensing body for taxis and private hire vehicles (‘minicabs’). TfL’s street management division is also responsible for the strategic London Road Network, including the ‘Red Routes’ on which stricter traffic control is applied. TfL also allocates funds for transport purposes to the LBs.

Within Wales, transport policy is exercised by the Welsh Assembly Government (WAG), including funding of unitary authorities, and grants for bus operations. Overall policy and structure is similar to that found in England. The unitary authorities are relatively small, making it necessary to ensure effective co-ordination between them (for example, in contracts for cross-boundary bus services). For some years, four regional consortia served this purpose, but were subsequently abolished. Current proposals involve radical reduction in the number of unitary authorities within Wales. Under the Transport (Wales) Act of 2006 and the Railways Act 2005 wider powers were given to WAG in respect of rail, covering responsibility for financial management of the Wales and Borders franchise. The Assembly’s Rail Unit works with operators and Network Rail to enhance services in the region. Overall transport policy is the responsibility for the Minister for Economy and Transport. The possibility of a ‘not for profit’ public-owned rail operator when the current franchise expires has been floated.

Within Scotland, the Parliament exercises a greater role, having its own legislation (the Transport (Scotland) Acts of 2001 and 2005) and corresponding powers. These differ in some respects from that applicable in England and Wales – for example, within bus ‘quality partnerships’ (agreements between operators and local authorities to enhance services) fare levels and minimum service frequencies can be specified. A Minister for Enterprise, Transport and Lifelong Learning occupies a role equivalent to the Secretary of State and Ministers in England and Wales. Parliament is also responsible for the rail franchising process (almost all services within Scotland being operated by the ScotRail franchise), under powers delegated by the Railways Act 2005.

The Scottish Executive exercises its transport function largely through the agency Transport Scotland, which is responsible for trunk roads, major new road and public transport infrastructure, the national concessionary fares scheme, travel information systems and monitoring the rail franchise. Under the 2005 Act a set of statutory regional partnerships was set up, some seven in all, through which unitary authorities have developed transport strategies, and to which they may cede some of their transport powers, although for the present most funding passes directly to the unitary authorities.

Within Northern Ireland, the Legislative Assembly Parliament determines policy, exercised through the Executive. A minister is responsible for the Department for Regional Development (DRD) which handles all internal transport planning and policy, except for some functions under the Department of Environment (NI) in road safety and vehicle licensing. In Northern Ireland, there are some 26 district councils, but these have almost no role ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Organisation and control of transport in the British Isles
• 2 The role of public transport
• 3 Data collection for public transport
• 4 Service quality and marketing
• 5 The technology of bus and coach systems
• 6 Urban railways and rapid transit systems
• 7 Network planning
• 8 Costing and cost allocation methods
• 9 Pricing theory and practice
• 10 Rural public transport
• 11 Long-distance public transport
• 12 Some current policy issues
• Index