The Psychology of Dog Ownership

Theresa Barlow, Craig Roberts

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781351112291
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: History & Theory in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

What are the benefits of owning a dog on health and well-being? Why does a problem dog behave as it does and how can owners deal with unwanted behaviour? How do dogs communicate with humans and each other? The Psychology of Dog Ownership explores the nature of our unique relationship with dogs and its effect on our mental and physical welfare. The book uses psychological learning theory to examine dog behaviour and highlights the importance of determining between typical dog behaviour and behaviour disorders that need treatment. Focusing on how dog owners can communicate effectively with their pets, and always with the dogsbest interests in mind, The Psychology of Dog Ownership enhances our understanding of the modern human-canine bond and shows how important and enjoyable this relationship can be.

1

The new normal of dog behaviour

The association between humans and dogs is long and varied. Dogs have, and still do, fulfil numerous roles in human society such as security, assistance and companionship. The long-term close association between dogs and humans means that the communication between us as species is well developed. However, frequent misunderstandings still do occur, often resulting in the display of inappropriate aggression and anxiety-related disorders seen in both dogs and their owners. In order to conserve the amicable social bonds between humans and dogs, research into human-animal communication (Anthrozoology), and in particular dog behaviour, is essential for dogs and owners to have a good-natured relationship.

Today just under 44% of UK households own a pet. The most popular is the fish, the second is the dog and the third is the cat. The domestic dog population in the UK is currently estimated at 8.5 million. The size of the dog appears to be an important differentiating factor in the dog owner’s choice, with an increase in popularity in the smaller sizes, e.g. French bulldog, Chihuahua and the Pomeranian. There could be a variety of reasons for this. These include the increased cost of living, the challenges many face in stepping on the property ladder, an increase in the number of starter homes and flats with more limited space and/or a delay in starting a family. The rise in demand for small dogs appears to be the compromise dog owners are making given the long-standing knowledge of the benefits of dog ownership. Some of these include the development of empathy and responsibility in children, the cohesion a dog brings to family life and the companionship and social expansion dog ownership brings to the elderly. However, this demand has led to the development of experimental cases and extremism in dog breeding, for example, toy breeds have been bred to fit into cups (tea cup dogs) and there are advertising images of adult toy breeds that are side by side a smartphone demonstrating the “pocket” aspect of the dog. There are the obvious questions around ethics and welfare in promoting a dog as a product rather than a living, breathing being.

However, the rise in popularity of newer dog cross breeds is not always disadvantageous as seen in the fun-loving and even-tempered healthy breeds such as the Cockerpoo (Cocker Spaniel crossed with a Poodle) and the Labradoodle (Labrador Retriever crossed with the Standard, Miniature or Toy Poodle) which are said to have a benefit to owners who are prone to allergies in that these dogs are not likely to cause allergic reactions in humans.

Statistical analysis of the UK Kennel Club breed registrations reflect a significant change in the dog breeding market. During the last four years the population of the toy breeds, for example, the French Bulldogs has exploded, increasing by some 23% whilst the larger breeds, for example, German Shepherd population has reduced by 6% (Figure 1.1). This may not necessarily reflect a reduction in the large dog breeds in the UK as there has also been an anecdotally noted rise in popularity in larger breeds such as the Siberian Husky and the imported wolf dog hybrid. Scientists who study behaviour (Ethologists) have questioned if the changes in the body shape and internal biological mechanisms have been too rapid given archaeological evidence indicates that the dog was only relatively recently domesticated.

The dog was the first species domesticated pre-agriculture and Charles Darwin held the view that all dogs have descended from any one wild species. Archaeological evidence suggests that the dog was domesticated only 12,000 years ago; however there is more recent, genetic evidence suggesting that dogs may have diverged from the wolf (Canis lupus) more than 100,000 years ago. The dog’s closest relatives could be considered to be the wolf, golden jackal (Canis aureus) and coyote (Canis latrans) and genetically both the wolf and the dog have very similar anatomy. However, some researchers suggest that the ancestors of both the dog and the wolf became extinct thousands of years ago as there is DNA evidence suggesting that dogs are more closely related to each other than to a wolf, meaning the genetic overlap between dogs and wolves present today is due to interbreeding after dog domestication.

Figure 1.1 Kennel Club breed registrations 2013–2017

There is no absolute consensus as to how dogs were domesticated, but three main ideas exist. The first suggests that the puppies of wild canines were stolen, brought back to the settlement and then bonded to tribeswomen as they suckled at the breasts of lactating mothers. The second theory suggests that dogs were domesticated by scavenging near villages and forming bonds with villagers (there are photographs of village women breastfeeding domesticated animals). These dogs could have been encouraged as their presence would have had several advantages for humans. For example, dogs would have kept the settlement clean by eating human and animal faeces. They also would have barked and growled to warn of the approach of wild animals or human strangers and it is possible that the dogs themselves could have been a valuable source of meat and fur in times of human need (today this is a controversial issue as dog meat festivals are a tradition in parts of the world that many consider inhumane). The third theory of domestication refers to an association with humans at a time when people developed a more settled existence. This would have been at a time when humans were planting crops and storing grain. It would have also been at a time when humans were developing tools into catapults and bow and arrow types, leading to the commencement of hunting and the need for retrieving. Dogs became a very valuable commodity and could be trained and used for tasks, such as the retrieval of prey. However, it is possible that all three methods of domestication may have occurred at similar or different times.

The domestication of the dog has resulted in alterations in how dogs look and behave. The different breeds that exist today are the result of natural genetic mutation and selective breeding. Domestication has led to both the intensification and inhibition of particular behaviour patterns through such selective breeding. An example of the intensification is retrieving and racing, whilst for inhibition there has been a reduction in dog hunting and foraging. In some instances humans have taken the selection of dog breeds to the extreme for entirely aesthetic and/or behavioural purposes.

Selective breeding is considered to have contributed to the health problems associated with specific breeds. If we take the bulldog, for example, its body conformation impacts on its physical and behavioural welfare; mating naturally and successfully is more difficult due to the wide size of the puppies’ heads relative to the bitches’ pelvis. Excessive wrinkling can home bacteria leading to infection and an overbite can hinder the development of their teeth. Another issue is an obstructive airway due to shortened snout. This affects their ability to maintain their body temperature with exertion. In addition, several eye conditions can occur as a result of their shortened snout and deformity of the spine that at worst leads to loss of function and incontinence could be associated with the curly tail. Behaviourally there have been obstacles as selective breeding for purely aesthetic purposes has resulted in changes in dog body shapes that can impede effective interspecific (between different species) and intraspecific (between the same species) communication. This can be directly related to misunderstandings – for example, the “perfect double curl” in the tail of a Pug removes the tail as a means of communication which can lead to misunderstandings. Owners can interpret this as inappropriate behaviour or a behaviour problem, the most common of which is aggression. In some cases dogs have been bred specifically to have the body type and/or trained to exhibit the behaviour for heightened aggressive tendencies. When such unethically managed and trained dogs are kept as pets, this poses an obvious risk for the safety of humans and other animals.

The human-canine bond

Historically, dogs may have been chosen as pets because they were able to transfer their social attachments to humans and behave towards people in a manner that we interpreted as approachable, devoted and companionable. Dogs often remain in the vicinity of humans without the need for tethering or other restrictions and display signals indicative of their motivation or state that we interpret correctly. Due to their morphology some dogs are easier to understand than others. For example, a breed such as a Husky is fully equipped with the physical attributes to show their intent. Some of these attributes are pointed ears to move in rotation, fur and colouring to emphasise its status which can be enhanced when hackles are raised and dark liver-coloured lips to contrast teeth to demonstrate levels of arousal. However, a long-haired Pekingese will have to work hard to demonstrate body shapes as these can be disguised by an ample coat and is therefore more likely to use whole body actions and vocalisations to make its intentions known, to compensate for the long hair and small features which can also disguise its signals.

Today the dog continues to be a valuable resource throughout the world as it retains its multiplicity of uses. Examples include:

• Hunting, shepherding, guarding and tracking
• Religious worship, for example, the Aztecs worshipped the dog as having symbolic significance. In addition, in traditional Chinese astrology, the dog is one of the 12 honoured animals. In Christianity, the Catholic Church recognises Saint Rocco as the patron saint of dogs.
• Scientific research and for ever more sophisticated assistance purposes, medical detection and bomb detection
• Extreme recreational uses, for example, there are extreme dog grooming competitions where groomers dye and sculpt dogs to look like other animals such as a horse, panda or tiger and as a result they are unrecognisable as a breed

However, the dog’s primary role today is as our companion and pet and dogs require the cohesion of a predictable social group and when owners are unable to provide such an environment, behaviour disorders can occur. At its most serious, atypical and unacceptable behaviour can be life-threatening for the dog in the sense that if it cannot be tolerated, euthanasia may be considered the owner’s only option. The development of behaviour is unfortunately not often the result of one single factor. Behaviour of any dog can be affected by a number of variables during their development. These include:

• The environment, for example, dogs born on a working farm in a rural area find it difficult to adjust when re-homed to an inner-city domestic environment and can experience stress and anxiety
• Physiology, for example, some dogs appear more relaxed than others as a result of the response to their level of stress hormone
• Experience and learning, for example, getting a treat for learning to follow the command of ‘sit’
• Genetic predisposition, for example, some dogs are more prone to have particular behaviour patterns such as lethargy or excitability

Dog behavioural development

Development of behaviour is dependent on some significant period of learning. There is typically considered to be a sensitive period of learning between 4 and 16 weeks (socialisation period) in which a puppy learns what to expect from its environment. If, as an adult dog, it comes across novel situations not experienced during socialisation, this can be a cause of stress and could result in what an owner considers inappropriate. The most common disorders seen by Behaviour Consultants are those related to a fear or phobia developed from a bad or inadequate socialisation period (aggressive behaviours are often considered the result of a heighted stress response). A particularly sensitive period is generally accepted as between six and eight weeks of age. During this period the puppy learns to accept the stimuli in its environment as normal. This is therefore considered by breeders as the best time to remove a puppy from its litter enabling the puppy to become familiar with its new environment and the people it will know, as it becomes an adult dog. The socialisation period is important from a behaviour perspective as whatever stimuli the puppy is not exposed to during this period is more likely to trigger a fear response in adulthood. For example, a bad experience such as rough handling by a man can lead to a fear of men in adult life.

Dog behaviour disorders

Some people keep dogs strictly as companion animals rather than for protection or any other functional purposes. As a result there is an increased necessity for the behaviour of the dog to be socially acceptable, for example, today coffee shops are permitting dogs in with their owners. Misunderstandings occur because owners often regard their dog as a more human member of the household and can be upset when the dog behaves in a canine way that does not match the position. Behaviour disorders/problems have been described as being anything that does not fulfil reasonable human expectations including any behaviour that is a source of strain and conflict for the owner, the dog or others. However, these definitions are subjective and do not consider what is typical and atypical behaviour. Potentially any behaviour patterns exhibited by a domestic dog which is considered by the owner as inappropriate or as a problem is a behaviour problem. Such dissatisfaction can jeopardise the completeness of the dog-owner bond. However, it is noteworthy that from the dog’s point of view these behaviours could be considered entirely normal, for example, digging holes is an innate dog behaviour and when it is appropriately placed, for example, when digging is in the sand and at the beach, owners rarely have any complaints. However, when their dog digs a hole in their lawn it is problematic to the owner, but it is not an abnormal dog behaviour and therefore this is a problem and not necessarily a disorder. The unwanted behaviour shown by any dog can have multiple causes because of both their innate and learned behaviours. As a result of this the cause, presentation and interpretation of any dog behaviour is ever-changing and depends on the environmental circumstances, the value of any resources that are available and the perceived reward in acquiring the resource. Behaviour disorders include:

• Aggression-related behaviours, can occur interspecifically (between different species) and intraspecifically (within a species)
• Separation-related behaviour such as chewing furniture when left alone at home
• Training issues such as toileting in inappropriate areas of the house
• Phobias such as fear of fireworks
• Stereotypical behaviours such as tail chasing

A most common behaviour disorder is aggression which is multif...