• The people of Rongelap experienced involuntary displacement from Rongelap and Ailinginae atolls when they were physically removed from their atolls (March–May 1946; 1954–1957). When people returned to their atolls, they lost access to a viable healthy ecosystem (thus they were displaced from their ability and rights to safely live in their environment in the years between 1957 and 1985). They became exiles (1985–present) when they were finally informed of the life-threatening contamination levels in their homeland.
• Families were deprived of their right to live and use lands on Rongerik Atoll.2 Rongerik Atoll was taken for U.S. naval use following World War II and used as a weather and fallout tracking station during the nuclear testing program (1946–1958). The U.S. Navy, without getting permission or providing compensation, used Rongerikas a resettlement site for the Bikinians (1946–1948). And in 1957, when the Rongelap community was resettled on Rongelap and Ailinginae, the United States prohibited all access to and subsistence use of Rongerik Atoll due to severe contamination from nuclear weapons fallout.
• Exposure concerns involve much more than exposure to radiation and fallout from a singular testing event in 1954. Exposure concerns involve the persistent presence of contamination from sixty-seven atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands. This contamination includes radioactive elements released through nuclear explosions, as well as tracer chemicals, such as arsenic, used to “fingerprint” the fallout from each weapon. The people of Rongelap, Rongerik, and Ailinginae were exposed to external radiation and other toxic substances not only from fallout but more significantly from internal ingestion—breathing dust and smoke from household and garden fires, drinking water, consuming terrestrial and marine food sources, and living in houses and using material culture fashioned from contaminated materials.
• “Exposed” people of Rongelap include those living on Rongelap and Ailinginae in 1954 who were exposed to Bravo and other test fallout; those who were resettled in 1957; those who were born on the contaminated atoll; those who were exposed to materials and food originating from Rongelap, Rongerik, and Ailinginae atolls; and the descendents of people exposed to radioactive contaminants. Given the synergistic, cumulative, and genetic effects of long-term exposure to radioactive isotopes and other environmental contamination from military testing, exposure is of concern to this and future generations.
• The people of Rongelap, Rongerik, and Ailinginae, with other Marshallese, served as unwitting subjects in a series of experiments designed to take advantage of the research opportunities accompanying exposure of a distinct human population to radiation. The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) initially funded human subject research involving the Marshallese in 1951 in an effort to document “spontaneous mutation rates” to better estimate the genetic effects of radiation produced through the nuclear weapons testing program. Research on the human effects of radiation was intensively conducted beginning in March 1954, with efforts to document the physiological symptoms of U.S. servicemen and Marshallese natives exposed to fallout from the Bravo test. Initial findings from this and other biological research projects helped shape the goals and approach of an integrated long-term study on the human and environmental effects of nuclear weapons fallout. That study began in 1954 and was continued by Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) through 1998.
• The people of Rongelap believe, and the documentary record confirms, that the United States was aware of the extraordinary levels of fallout from Bravo and subsequent tests, was aware of continuing levels of radioactivity, was aware of contamination in the marine as well as terrestrial ecosystem, was aware of the bioaccumulative nature of contamination, noted radiation-induced changes in vegetative and marine life that islanders relied upon for food, monitored the increased radiation burdens of the resettled people returned to Rongelap in 1957, and documented the human health consequences of this systematic and cumulative exposure. Medical exams, especially from the 1950s to the early 1970s, involved monitoring and diagnostic procedures meant to document bioaccumulation processes and physiological symptoms related to radiation exposure, rather than clinical efforts to treat the various radiogenic and related health problems of the people of Rongelap. Periodic “medical surveys” also subjected the people of Rongelap to procedures that produced biological samples—blood, marrow, teeth, and other samples were harvested and sent back to the United States—in support of a wide range of experiments, many of which had little or no connection to the individual health and treatment needs of the people of Rongelap. Varied human subject experimentation also occurred during medical treatment trips to research laboratories in the United States. Ethnographic and documentary evidence demonstrates that the experiences of human subjects were painful, abusive, and traumatic.
• In addition to biophysical injuries, exposure to the environmental hazards generated by the U.S. nuclear testing program (and related biomedical research) resulted in stigmatization and other psychosocial injuries that adversely affected individuals, the community, and the nation. Nuclear testing introduced new taboos: certain lands and foods were off-limits; marriage to certain people involved new social stigmas; birthing presented new fears and health risks; family life often involved the psychological, social, and economic burden of caring for the chronically ill and disabled. The failure of the U.S. government to provide the people of Rongelap with accurate information concerning environmental hazards and risks, coupled with contradictory pronouncements on what was and was not safe, created taboos that were incomprehensible yet dominated living conditions after the onset of testing in the Marshall Islands. This transformation in the loci of control over taboos from a Marshallese cultural realm to a U.S. scientific realm undermined rules and the customary power structures that shaped, interpreted, and reproduced strategies for living in the Marshall Islands. The fear of nuclear contamination and the personal health and intergenerational effects from exposure colored all aspects of social, ...