PART 1
The Crusader Period Chapter 1
A Note on Jerusalemâs B m rist n and Jerusalemâs Hospital1
Benjamin Z. Kedar
On 5 Ramadan 438, a date that corresponds to 5 March 1047, N ser-e Khosraw, a Persian civil administrator turned pilgrim and traveller, arrived in Jerusalem. In his detailed description of the city we read:
Jerusalem has a fine, well endowed B m rist n [hospital]. Many people are given drugs and elixirs. The physicians who are there receive salaries from the endowment for this B m rist n.2
This passage attests to the existence, in eleventh-century Muslim Jerusalem, of a true hospital â that is, a hospital in which salaried physicians attend to patients. Such hospitals, which were exclusively medical institutions, are known to have existed elsewhere in the realm of Islam. For instance, in 872 Ahmad b. T l n, ruler of Egypt, founded a hospital at Fust t (Old Cairo), each ward of which was reserved for a different illness. In 981 âAd d al-Dawla, who ruled a large part of the Islamic empire in the second half of the tenth century, built a large hospital in Baghdad; the well-equipped institution, which came to be known as al-âAd di hospital, had 24 physicians, whose number in 1068 had risen to 28.3
In the realm of Islam, professional medical treatment was also quite commonly available outside of hospitals. The Cairo Geniza, that vast repository of discarded documents written in the Hebrew script that constitutes a major source for the history of the area between north-western Africa and India â and especially of Egypt and Palestine â in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, amply attests to this availability. âIn the Geniza papersâ, writes Shelomo Dov Goitein, âwe find a Jewish doctor, and often more than one, in many a little town or large village and occasionally Christian and Muslim colleagues are mentioned as well. The prescriptions preserved indicate that even for humdrum cases of constipation or of the loosening of bowels a doctor was consulted.â4 In the event of serious illness, even a man of limited resources could benefit from a consultation of several doctors; this happened for instance in Ramle, Palestine, in about 1060.5 There were oculists, physicians treating wounds, healers specializing in stomach troubles, experts in bloodletting, and professional veterinarians, one of whom treated a donkey that had suffered a dislocation while carrying building materials.6
During roughly the same period as that in which the Persian traveller N sere Khusraw described the Jerusalem B m rist n with its salaried physicians, a rich Amalfitan by the name of Maurus established a hospital in Jerusalem, and another in Antioch. So reports the contemporary chronicler Amatus of Montecassino (born ca. 1010) in his Ystoria Normannorum, which covers the period 1016â78; the chronicle survives only in an Old French translation dating from ca. 1300.7 A short, anonymous notice about Archbishop John of Amalfi (ca. 1070âca. 1082) reports that he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he was received by Amalfitans who, a few years earlier, had established there two hospitalia, one for men and one for women.8 The Jerusalem-born William of Tyre, writing about a century later, proffers more details: merchants from Amalfi founded a monastery in honour of the Virgin Mary near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and located there an abbot and monks from their country. A convent was later erected nearby and, finally, a xenodochium for pilgrims, healthy or sick.9
What was the nature of the Amalfitan âhospitalâ in Jerusalem? The eleventh-century West had no counterparts to the contemporary hospitals of the Islamic world, where salaried physicians regularly attended to patients and medical lore accumulated. It is symptomatic, from this point of view, that when, in the late eleventh century, Constantine the African translated into Latin The Complete Book of the Medical Art by âAl ibn al-âAbb s al-Maj s, he omitted the advice to visit hospitals in order to gain medical knowledge, for hospitals in which such knowledge could have been acquired did not yet exist in the Latin West.10 Should we conclude therefore that the Amalfitan âhospitalâ was merely a hospice of the type then current in the West? Possibly so. But an alternative hypothesis â namely, that the Amalfitans were influenced to some extent by the superior medical practice of the Islamic world â is also conceivable.
When the Amalfitans established their Jerusalem âhospital,â presumably some time after the middle of the eleventh century, they were no newcomers to the Muslim Levant. There is evidence for the voyage of one Leo Amalfitanus to Egypt in 978.11 The eleventh-century Christian chronicler Yahy of Antioch reports that when in May 996 the suspicion arose in Cairo that the fire that had consumed 16 warships in the cityâs arsenal was started by âRomish merchants from Amalfiâ, the mob alongside Berber soldiers massacred 160 of the Amalfitans and looted their wares. Other Amalfitans were able to escape.12 This means that there may have been a colony of perhaps as many as two hundred Amalfitans in Cairo at the time.13 Two Geniza letters attest to the presence of Amalfitan merchants in Egypt in the mid-eleventh century, while a third mentions a Jewish merchantâs voyage from Alexandria to Amalfi, via Constantinople and Crete, in the same period.14 Indeed, it has been hypothesized that the Amalfitans provided naval assistance during the Fatimid conquest of Egypt in 969, secured a favourable commercial status in return, and thus became predominant among the Latin Christians who traded in the Muslim East.15 At any rate, it is plausible to assume that the Amalfitans who decided to establish a âhospitalâ in Jerusalem were cognizant of the availability of professional medical services in the Islamic world. Indeed, the existence of Jerusalemâs B m rist n could hardly have escaped them. Given that the Jerusalemite al-Muqaddas, writing in the 980s, reported that in al-Sh m (that is, Syria/Palestine) the physicians were generally Christians,16 one may hypothesize that the Amalfitans hired some Oriental Christian physician(s) to provide professional medical treatment in their new establishment.
This hypothesis is supported by a close reading of the above-mentioned anonymous notice about Archbishop John of Amalfi. The notice reports that in the two hospitalia the Amalfitans had erected in Jerusalem some time before the archbishopâs arrival, âinfirmi curabanturâ.17 Now, it has been claimed that the term infirmus refers to the disabled and the weak (who may, however, also be suffering from some disease), whereas the terms egroti and egrotantes refer unequivocally to the sick.18 However, the phrase âinfirmos curareâ is biblical; Christ enjoined the Apostles: âinfirmos curateâ,19 a charge that has always been understood to mean, âHeal the sickâ. We may therefore conclude that when the anonymous notice asserts that âinfirmi curabanturâ in Jerusalemâs Amalfitan hospitalia, it is the healing of the sick that is being referred to â although, unlike the Muslim B m rist n, the hospitalia did not treat only the sick. Before mentioning the curing of the sick, the anonymous notice spells out that the hospitalia were erected âad homines et mulieres recipiendos, in quibus et alebanturâ. In other words, the primary function of the hospitalia was to provide shelter and food for pilgrims from the West. In addition, the sick among them were offered a cure. Writing in the 1170s or early 1180s about the beginnings of the Jerusalem Hospital, William of Tyre makes the same point when he asserts that to the pre-1099 xenodochium were gathered both the healthy and the sick (sanos vel egrotantes).20 It should be noted that the earliest reference to sick people in the post-1099 Jerusalem Hospital appears in Albert of Aachenâs account that in 1101 a messenger of Count Roger of Apulia â that is, Roger Borsa, Bohemondâs brother â brought to Jerusalem 1,000 bezants, one-third of which was earmarked âin sustentatione hospitalis languidorum et ceterorum inualidorumâ.21 âLanguidusâ and âinvalidusâ usually mean âsickâ and âfeeble,â respectively.22
Ample documentation from the 1180s, much of which has come to light in recent years, leaves no doubt that the Jerusalem Hospital of the Knights of Saint John by that time served, inter alia, as a true hospital in which salaried physicians attended to a large number of patients, and its daily routine resembled in many important respects that of hospitals in the Islamic world and Byzantium.23 At present, our documentation does not mention salaried physicians, or professional medical treatment in the Jerusalem Hospital at an earlier date.24 But, as we know, the earliest mention of a phenomenon in the available documentation must not be regarded as constituting proof of that being actually the phenomenonâs earliest occurrence. The phenomenon may have occurred earlier; it may have developed gradually. Possibly its earliest form took shape already with the establishment of the Amalfitan hospitalia. For these were not erected on a cultural tabula rasa. They were established in an area about whose medical services we are quite well informed, by people who were no newcomers to the Muslim Levant.