The Psychology of Fashion

Carolyn Mair

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781317217626
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychologie
• Subtopic: Histoire et théorie en psychologie

The Psychology of Fashion offers an insightful introduction to the exciting and dynamic world of fashion in relation to human behaviour, from how clothing can affect our cognitive processes to the way retail environments manipulate consumer behaviour. The book explores how fashion design can impact healthy body image, how psychology can inform a more sustainable perspective on the production and disposal of clothing, and why we develop certain shopping behaviours.

With fashion imagery ever present in the streets, press and media, The Psychology of Fashion shows how fashion and psychology can make a positive difference to our lives.

1

Introduction

Overview

Welcome to The Psychology of Fashion, part of Routledge’s Psychology of Everything series. This book is designed to introduce you to a new field of applied psychology: the psychology of fashion. The aim of this emerging sub-discipline of psychology is to develop a deeper understanding of the reciprocal influence of fashion (and the fashion industries) and human behaviour and ultimately to use fashion as a vehicle for enhancing wellbeing.

Many fashion magazines, blogs and consultants tell us that what we wear says a lot about who we are. According to these commentators, fashion expresses who we are, our personality and identity, through nonverbal communication. This intuitive reasoning is appealing, but while it encourages conversations about these and other psychological concepts, a scientific underpinning is often missing from the argument. Since launching the sub-discipline of psychology of fashion, I have been asked many times about the psychology underlying what particular fashion items or their features say about the wearer. As you’ll discover when you read this book, the answers are not necessarily intuitive.

Although we make judgements about a person based on their appearance alone in under 1 second, these judgements are often flawed. Interpretations of the psychological meaning of clothing are influenced not only by the wearer but also by the observer, as well as by the social and cultural context. Nevertheless, our clothing, like other objects, becomes part of our identity and enables us to align with particular groups while separating us from others. We should be aware, however, that others may not make the same associations about our clothing as we do.

You will be used to seeing fashion imagery in the streets, press and media. You might feel differing degrees of confidence about yourself at different times, in different contexts, as a result. These feelings might have affected your self-esteem, mental health and wellbeing. Because of the ubiquitous nature of fashion imagery, you may not even be aware of its influence. You may have heard about the fashion industry’s contribution to environmental and social issues and want to find out more – to go beyond simply knowing more to knowing how individuals can do more. These issues, and many more, can be addressed by psychology, the scientific study of human behaviour.

The intentions of this book are to provide an understanding of the reciprocal influences between fashion in its broadest sense and human behaviour, and to motivate you to become more confident in your involvement with fashion and, in doing so, contribute to a more ethical and sustainable industry.

This book is designed for a general audience. There is no assumption of expertise in either fashion or psychology. This chapter provides definitions of fashion and psychology, a rationale for the importance of applying psychology in the context of fashion, a brief history of fashion, an overview of how evidence can be derived in psychology and a road map for the remainder of the book. Finally, some resources for further reading are provided. Let’s get started.

Definitions

Psychology

The Oxford English Dictionary defines psychology as “the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behaviour in a given context” and “the mental characteristics or attitude of a person or group”.¹ The British Psychological Society, the professional body for psychologists in the UK, defines psychology as

the scientific study of the mind and how it dictates and influences behaviour, from communication and memory to thought and emotion. Psychology is … concerned with all aspects of behaviour and the thoughts, feelings, and motivations underlying it. It’s about understanding what makes people tick and how this understanding can help us address and solve many of the problems in society. As a science, psychology is dedicated to the study of human behaviour through observation, measurement, and testing in order to form conclusions that are based on sound scientific methodology.²

According to the British Psychological Society, psychologists are concerned with understanding theories, and ultimately developing and testing them to enable the prediction of outcomes to improve quality of life (see https://beta.bps.org.uk/DiscoverPsychology). The American Psychological Association’s definition states:

Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. The discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience – from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental healthcare services, the understanding of behavior is the enterprise of psychologists.³

Fashion

An agreed definition of fashion is elusive. The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as a noun, “a popular or the latest style of clothing, hair, decoration, or behaviour”, and as a verb, “a manner of doing something”.⁴ Valerie Steele, an American fashion historian, curator and director of the Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology, as well as editor of the journal, Fashion Theory, defines fashion for the purposes of the journal as the cultural construction of the embodied identity.⁵ As such, fashion encompasses all forms of ‘self-fashioning’, including street styles and high fashion. Fashion is commonly understood to refer to the prevailing style of dress or behaviour, with the result that it is characterised by change. Steele argues that fashion attracts attention because of its intimate relationship with the physical body and therefore the identity of the wearer. Tansey Hoskins, in Stitched Up: The Anti-Capitalist Book of Fashion (2014), describes how fashion offers a social process of negotiation and navigation which has a “cultivated mystique”.⁶ She argues that the industry perpetuates the notion that Milan, London, Paris and New York produce fashion, and that everything produced outside these centres is simply apparel or clothing. Fashion by definition is related to change and is typically associated with younger groups, whereas clothing is used as an umbrella term encompassing functional as well as decorative items. In this book we use the terms interchangeably for ease of reading.

The importance of applying psychology in the context of fashion

Fashion is creative, exciting and dynamic, and because of its nature and inextricably close relationship with the body, the fashion industry manifests many issues which affect us psychologically at individual, societal and global levels.

Clothing is our second skin; it sits next to our bodies and becomes part of our identity. Fashion garments are often described in sensory terms such as vision and touch. The other senses are also important in fashion. Consider the sense of smell for the fragrance and beauty industries, as well as for items made from leather. Sound may be overlooked when thinking of sensory aspects of fashion, but consider the sound of heels on pavement, or the rustle of taffeta. Sensory input is processed in the brain through the psychological phenomenon of perception. In order for sensory stimulation from the environment to be perceived, it needs attention. For interpretation of sensory input to take place, we draw on memory, creativity and communication. All these are psychological in nature because they take place in the brain. Clothing is also important in terms of functionality and protection, but equally importantly it is the vehicle by which we promote ourselves to others. As a cultural phenomenon, fashion is concerned with meanings and symbols which provide instant visual communication to be interpreted and responded to by those we interact with. Although researchers have found that clothing style can convey qualities such as character, sociability, competence and intelligence, often what is conveyed is different from what was intended because communication in any medium is complex.

Because communication involves many brain processes, it is considered psychological. Interpreting the meaning of any message is complex as there are so many opportunities for distortion of the meaning. As Barnard argues in Fashion as Communication, interpreting meaning from fashion or clothing is difficult and fraught with problems.⁷ Nevertheless, clothing and fashion can be used in many positive ways to enhance our life chances, self-esteem and wellbeing. Once more, these are psychological constructs.

Fashion is an important global industry employing millions worldwide. The global apparel market (including sub-industries such as menswear, womenswear and sportswear) is valued at US$3 trillion. It accounts for 2% of the world’s gross domestic product and employs 57.8 million people across the world, generating an income of more than £26 billion annually in the UK alone.⁸ Fascinating as it is to analyse an individual’s clothing, fashion is concerned with far more than what we wear. The fashion industry’s employees work in many different disciplines, including the obvious ones such as fashion and textile design, textile production, manufacturing, marketing, distribution, retail and visual merchandising, and the less obvious ones, such as computer programming, law, accountancy, copywriting, social media, project management and increasingly psychology.

Because fashion is inherently concerned with human behaviour, it can be considered a form of psychology. Despite this, most of the literature on fashion comes from cultural theorists, fashion historians, sociologists, anthropologists and philosophers; until recently, few psychologists engaged in the debate. Kaiser, in The Social Psychology of Clothing (1997), describes psychologists’ slow development of interest in clothing and fashion, but, fortunately, times have changed.⁹ We are now seeing enthusiasm from the industry for psychological evidence to enable a deeper understanding and better prediction of human behaviour. This evidence can be used to help improve the industry’s practices in response to its ethical and social responsibilities.

By now I hope to have convinced you that the application of psychology in the context of fashion is important, but before I move on to an in-depth discussion of this, it seems just to provide a brief history of fashion. Please note that this is not intended to be comprehensive. Rather, it is intended to provide context for the remainder of the book.

A brief history of fashion

Fashion ranges from high couture to high street, but regardless of its origins, fashion is conceived of, produced and sold by people for people. Fashion can be considered a continual process of change over time and over space. In some cases, fashion precedes political change; at other times, it follows it. The globalisation of fashion has resulted in more homogeneous dressing around the world, but it wasn’t always this way.

Anthropologists argue that humans began wearing clothes in the Neanderthal period (approximately 200,000–30,000 BCE) when they started using tools made of bone rather than stone. Bone tools enabled Neanderthals to soften skins without tearing them, making them more pliable and more able to be made into clothing. Prior to this, humans had decorated their bodies for rituals and as a sign of status. As body decorations were hidden once humans started wearing clothing, they began to decorate the clothing, which assumed a decorative as well as a functional purpose. Spun, dyed and knotted wild flax fibres found in caves in Georgia, dating back hundreds of thousands of years, are considered to be remnants of clothing made in response to decreasing amounts of body hair and the resulting need to keep warm. Other accounts claim that the need for clothing arose as humans moved from Africa to colder climates and settled in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). The Mesopotamians spun and wove wool and made felt and other fibres to produce clothing and footwear such as loin cloths for men and shawls and skirts for women. Even then, wealthy people wore large, elaborate jewellery made of gold and silver and used perfume and cosmetics. According to these accounts, later, as the diaspora spread, the first Egyptian cultures formed along the banks of the Nile. At this time, men and women dressed in light, loose, flowing woollen or linen clothing draped around the body. They cared for and decorated their skin with cosmetics and wore headdresses as status symbols. Similarly, as humans moved to Greece, clothing and jewellery were worn as an indicator of status. Evidence suggests that around 2500 to 1600 BCE, the societies who lived in the Indus Valley, in modern-day Pakistan, created jewellery and wore fine woven, dyed and decorated fabrics draped around their body. Clothing styles hardly changed for centuries across swathes of the populated world. This ‘fashion’ lasted for centuries and can be seen as late as the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BCE, when wealthy men and women wore togas draped over a tunic, or a cloak over a long dress.

Clothing was similar in the Far East, where for centuries the majority of people in China wore a tunic or jacket and loose trousers, while the upper classes wore a long-sleeved, loose-fitting silk robe which fastened either down the middle or across the right side of the chest. Chinese traditional practices for clothing were maintained until Emperor Pu Yi was toppled in 1911 and ‘Western’ dress was allowed. However, when Mao Tse-tung’s government came to power in 1949, the Mao suit – plain trousers and a tunic with a mandarin collar and two pockets on the chest – was worn across China regardless of class. In recent years, China has become one of world’s most important producers of fashion garments and accessories and is increasingly influential in terms of design. Chinese design was influential in Japan from the 6th century CE, when many clothing traditions were adopted; like in China, Western dress was not adopted in Japan until the late 19th century.

In medieval Europe, people wore tunics and capes made of rough wool or animal fur. Later, tailors made garments for wealthy people, with women wearing fitted clothing, with lower necklines over corsets which gave an exaggerated shape to the hips and bust. Men wore tunics over leggings and trousers. Velvet, brocade and linen clothing became popular with the wealthy classes at the time of the Renaissance, and during Elizabethan times (1558–1603), clothing for the wealthy became even more elaborate, with ruffled collars, small waists, broad shoulders, puffed sleeves and wide headdresses. After this came the baroque period (1604–1682), which began in France under King Louis XIV and later spread across Europe. Women wore looser, less elaborate gowns, and men wore doublets and utilitarian leather jackets over full, knee-length breeches rather than hose.

Major changes in clothing occurred during the Georgian and Regency periods because of the Industrial Revolution (1760–1840), when new manufacturing processes were developed, hand-production methods were replaced by machines, water power was harnessed more efficiently, and use of steam power increased. As a result, during the Georgian period (1714–1830), fashion became increasingly important for indicating status. Clothing was characterised by expensively tailored garments in lace and silk brocade. Both men and women wore tall, powdered wigs and high-heeled shoes. Women’s dresses featured panniers to widen the silhouette, and men wore plain coats with tails and long, tight breeches. After this, fashion became simpler again. During the Regency period (1811–1837), women wore simple, draped dresses without corsets, tied at the waist; men wore pantaloons and tall boots. Until the Industrial Revolution, clothing and therefore fashion trends had been created by the royalty and copied by dressmakers for their wealthy clients. Poor people and peasants wore hand-me-downs or made their own.

The Industrial Revolution led to a surplus of rural workers seeking employment in industry and a better standard of living in cities. Many people who had lived in rural areas with their extended families moved to cities to live among strangers. In such situations, where we interact with strangers, we have little information other than appearance to use to infer identity, class and so on. Consequently, that which had previously been the preserve of wealthy people, ‘fashion’, became more important for more people. Yet, despite increased accessibility and demand, fashionable clothing remained the preserve of the wealthy until the treadle sewing machine, invented by Singer in 1869, made mass production of clothing a reality. The increased disposable income of the new middle classes in industrialised cities led to an increased demand for goods. Retail stores opened in cities to meet this need, and marketing strategies encouraged consumerism as an essential element self-worth. This extended to consumption for appearance management, and by the end of the 19th century, fashion magazines were being published in New York and Philadelphia.

Ordinary women and men were becoming more aware of fashion and the notion of being fashionable. It was during this time that the notion of conspicuous consumption was developed by Thorstein Veblen and described in his 1899 work, Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions.¹⁰ During Queen Victoria’s reign, fashion became far more accessible. To meet demand, fashion production became faster, and working conditions deteriorated. The tragic death of 146 workers trapped by fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York City in 1911 prompted the introduction of legislation requiring regular hours, paid leave, sick benefits and better working conditions. Although this benefited workers, fashion became less elaborate. Sadly, more than a century later, we are still witnessing disasters at fashion’s sweatshops.

In the 1920s, women become more liberated. They discarded their restrictive clothing and adopted the androgynous ‘flapper’ style. This era is considered the golden age of French fashion, when designers, including Jean Patou and Coco Chanel, designed sporty, athletic looks for men and women. After the Great Depression of 1929–1939, the ‘flapper’ look was replaced by long, flowing dresses influenced by French designers Coco Chanel, Madeleine Vionnet and Jeanne Lanvin, as well as Italian designer, Elsa Schiaparelli. During World War II, when resources for clothing were limited, clothing need...