War in the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1600

Francisco García Fitz, João Gouveia Monteiro, Francisco García Fitz, João Gouveia Monteiro

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN: 9781138707450
• eBook ISBN: 9781351778862
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Historia
• Subtopic: Historia moderna temprana

War in the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1600 is a panoramic synthesis of the Iberian Peninsula including the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, Aragon, Portugal, Navarra, al-Andalus and Granada. It offers an extensive chronology, covering the entire medieval period and extending through to the sixteenth century, allowing for a very broad perspective of Iberian history which displays the fixed and variable aspects of war over time.

The book is divided kingdom by kingdom to provide students and academics with a better understanding of the military interconnections across medieval and early modern Iberia.

The continuities and transformations within Iberian military history are showcased in the majority of chapters through markers to different periods and phases, particularly between the Early and High Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages.

With a global outlook, coverage of all the most representative military campaigns, sieges and battles between 700 and 1600, and a wide selection of maps and images, War in the Iberian Peninsula is ideal for students and academics of military and Iberian history.

Chapter 6 of this book is freely available as a downloadable Open Access PDF at http://www.taylorfrancis.com under a Creative Commons [Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives (CC BY-NC-ND)] 4.0 license.

1
Al-Andalus

Javier Albarrán¹

Political outline

The conquest of al-Andalus and the first steps

The history of al-Andalus begins in the year 711, when, commanding an army consisting mostly of Berbers and some Arabs, Tariq b. Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and initiated the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula at the service of Musa b. Nusayr, the Umayyad ruler of the province of Ifriqiya. Apparently, Tariq achieved a decisive victory against the Visigoth King Rodrigo next to the River Guadalete, although not all scholars agree with this location of the battle. Soon, barely offering any resistance due to the state of decomposition of the Visigothic kingdom, important cities fell one by one, such as Seville, Cordova and Toledo, the Visigothic capital. The success of the expedition led Musa b. Nusayr to intervene directly, and within a few years practically the entire Iberian Peninsula, and even southern France, had been conquered. Al-Andalus was thus established as an additional region of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus, dependent on the province of Ifriqiya (Manzano 2006: 29–53).

The Umayyad Emirate of al-Andalus

After the triumph of the Abbasid revolution in the East and the disappearance of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus (750), one of the few survivors of the outgoing dynasty, ‘Abd al-Rahman, managed to reach al-Andalus and proclaim himself emir in the year 756. Thus began the period known as the independent Umayyad emirate of al-Andalus, with its capital at Cordova. During this period, Islamic power consolidated in the Iberian Peninsula and the islamization and arabization process began, which did not reach its apex until approximately the 11th century. A few mountainous regions north of al-Andalus escaped the control of the Umayyad emirs, where, after the legendary Battle of Covadonga (722), the Asturian kingdom would first come into existence. Cordova carried out numerous campaigns against these northern Christians, with the main goal being to prevent them from advancing southwards.

Furthermore, al-Andalus was witness to a period of important internal commotions. Conflicts frequently arose between the central power and the rulers of the marchlands, thughur (see Glossary), frontier territories located around the cities of Zaragoza, Toledo and Mérida. Tensions of a social nature also occurred, in which minorities, especially converts to Islam, played an important role. The first symptoms of such conflicts arose under emir Hisham I (d. 796). Early in the 9th century, under al-Hakam I (d. 822), serious riots occurred, such as the one at Toledo in 807, and at Cordova in 818. Severe repression by the authorities managed to solve both situations (Manzano 2006: 189–359).

Under the government of emir ‘Abd al-Rahman II (d. 852), the so-called orientalization of al-Andalus occurred. In addition, an important conflict with the Christian community of Cordova also took place, known as the ‘voluntary martyrdom’, which ended with the execution of several Christians. Moreover, we must not forget that in the year 844, Normands appeared on the coastline of al-Andalus, more specifically in the vicinity of Lisbon and Seville (Manzano 2006: 189–359).

In the latter half of the 9th century, coinciding with emir Muhammad I (d. 886) and due to greater pressure by the Christians of the north, frontiers were further fortified. However, there were also strong tensions between the emiral power and the lords of the marchlands, such as Ibn Marwan in Mérida and Badajoz or the Banu Qasi dynasty in the Zaragoza region. In any event, the largest riot was initiated in the year 879 by ‘Umar ibn Hafsun in the region of Bobastro. After the shortlived emirate of al-Mundir (d. 888), during which Ibn Hafsun extended his range of action and Toledo underwent rebellion again, the fitna (discord or civil war) reached its climax during the emirate of ‘Abd Allah (d. 912). The year 890 was a particularly critical one: the emir only controlled the city of Cordova and its vicinity, whereas the remainder of the territory was atomized into a plethora of autonomous manors. The generalized riot of al-Andalus started to subside from the year 900 onwards, but its complete repression did not take place until the first third of the 10th century, on the verge of the caliphate (Manzano 2006: 189–359).

The Umayyad Caliphate of Cordova

‘Abd al-Rahman III (d. 961) became emir of Cordova in the year 912, and was soon able to pacify al-Andalus. At the same time, he decided to launch offensives against the Christians of the north, who, at the beginning of the 10th century, taking advantage of internal disputes in al-Andalus, had advanced through the northern plateau, reaching the line of the Duero River. Another danger arose which the emir had to face, namely that of the Fatimids, an Ismaili Shia caliphate established in North African territory in the year 909. However, ‘Abd al-Rahman III’s most spectacular success in those years was the crushing of the riot which, after ‘Umar Ibn Hafsun’s death in the year 918, his sons had continued. In 928, the fortress of Bobastro, the centre of the rebellion of the Banu Hafsun, fell under the control of Cordova. One year later, encouraged by this victory and in order to fight back against the Fatimid caliphate, the Umayyad ruler proclaimed himself caliph with the title of al-Nasir li-din Allah, thus initiating the period known as the Umayyad caliphate of Cordova (Manzano 2006: 363–469; Fierro 2011).

In the following years he continued his victorious march, successfully constraining the dissidence within the frontier territories, especially Toledo and Zaragoza, and leading successful campaigns against Christian territories, such as the Osma campaign in 934. However, ‘Abd al-Rahman III did suffer some defeats against the Christians, the most significant being the one at Simancas in the year 939, after which the caliph would no longer undertake any more expeditions.

In North Africa, Cordova remarkably improved its position, especially due to the conquest of the city of Ceuta in 931. The indisputable prestige obtained by the Umayyad caliph enabled him to establish relationships with both the Byzantine Empire and with the newly born Roman-Germanic Empire. ‘Abd al-Rahman III also ordered the construction, to the west of the city of Cordova, of the magnificent city-palace of Madinat al-Zahra’, which became the centre of the caliphal power and the construction of which was finished by his son. As such, the power of the Cordova Umayyad had reached its apogee (Manzano 2006: 363–469; Fierro 2011).

His son al-Hakam II (d. 976) succeeded him on the caliphal throne. His brief reign experienced a few shocking events. For instance, the establishment of the Fatimids in Egypt in the year 969 meant their definitive withdrawal from the Maghreb region, a situation exploited by Cordova to restore its control over the western zone of northern Africa. Moreover, arts and culture underwent spectacular development in al-Andalus during this period, the most representative examples being the alleged library gathered by al-Hakam II and the enlargement of the Great Mosque of Cordova with its spectacular mihrab, which represents an interesting cultural exchange with Byzantium. However, an important change occurred in the times of al-Hakam II’s successor, his still underage son Hisham II (d. 1009). Effective power was assumed by his tutor, Ibn Abi ‘Amir (d. 1002), Almanzor, who eventually became the true leader of al-Andalus. Almanzor, who had the support of the Berbers, started a vigorous political propaganda to legitimate his power. From the religious point of view, he was extremely orthodox, and turned the army, the jihad and the numerous victories he obtained into the basis of his power. Among his many incursions into Christian territory, those that stand out are Barcelona (985) and Santiago de Compostela (997). After the brief rulership of one of Almanzor’s sons, ‘Abd al-Malik (d. 1008), caliph Hisham II abdicated in the year 1009. A great fitna or civil war followed thereafter, which would lead to the disintegration of the Umayyad caliphate and to the taifa kingdoms (Echevarría 2011).

The taifa kingdoms

In November 1031, the Umayyad caliphate of Cordova was officially abolished, whereby the civil war between the different factions worsened. The result of this process was the rise of 30 minor kingdoms ruled by local dynasties, namely the taifa kingdoms. Traditionally, three larger groups were established according to their ethnic background: Berber taifas, in the centre, west and south of the Peninsula; Slavic taifas, on the Mediterranean seaboard; and Arab-Andalusi taifas, in south-western al-Andalus and in the Ebro valley. The most powerful ones were those founded on the old Umayyad frontier marches, like Toledo (the Banu Dhi al-Nun, Arabs) or Zaragoza (the Banu Hud, Arabs), but Seville (the ‘Abbadids, Arabs) and Granada (the Zirids, Berbers) were of great importance (Guichard and Soravia 2005).

Nevertheless, one must not underestimate the military and economic capacity nor the exercise of sovereignty that presided over the governmental action of the most important kingdoms, capable of stopping the expansionist momentum of the Christian kingdoms for decades and of growing through the annexation of weaker nearby territories. Within this context, there are figures like that of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, the Cid, the noble Castilian confronted with Alfonso VI who, after leaving Castile, put himself at the service of kings such as al-Muqtadir of Zaragoza and eventually occupied the taifa of Valencia (1094–1099). Moreover, the Christian kingdoms, making use of military pursuit, were able to implant the parias regime, whereby kings such as Sancho Garcés IV of Pamplona (d. 1076) obtained substantial payments from the taifa of Zaragoza in exchange for peace and assistance (Guichard and Soravia 2005).

While the economic development of the Muslim statelets tolerated the parias system, the survival of the taifas was guaranteed, but once this ceased, Christian expansionist pressure increased which led to the disappearance of the taifa kingdoms. Finally, the fall of Toledo before Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085 forced the taifa kings to seek help in North Africa, specifically from the nascent Almoravid Empire.

The Almoravids

The movement of the Almoravids, literally the ‘dwellers of the ribat’, took place on the African Atlantic coast, 500 kilometres north of the Senegal River. The objective of the founder of the movement, the pious Maliki missionary Ibn Yasin (d. 1059), was none other than to extend his vision of Islam among the Berber tribes, making use, when necessary, of the jihad.

After Ibn Yasin’s death, Abu Bakr b. ‘Umar (d. 1088) rose to power and laid the bases for sedentariness with the foundation of Marrakech (1071). He began to look towards the Maghreb and al-Andalus instead of the Sahara. When Yusuf b. Tashufin (d. 1106) took over the leadership in 1073, the jump across the Strait into al-Andalus was only a matter of time. The process quickened first with the fall of Barbastro and Coimbra (1064) and later with the fall of Toledo (1085). The taifa kings of Seville, Badajoz and Granada asked the emir for help against Alfonso VI and the request was answered with the Almoravid victory over the Christian troops in the Battle of Zalaca on 23 October 1086. Four years later, the Berber dynasty made the decision to conquer al-Andalus and to finish off the fragmented taifa kingdoms (Bennison 2016).

On 8 September 1090, the Zirid king ‘Abd Allah of Granada handed the city over to the North African emir. Next came Malaga, Tarifa, Cordova and within a few months the entire Andalusi territory. Thus, unification of the entire Islamic West under one government was achieved with the Almoravids for the first time. In view of this, sources exalt this phenomenon as opposed to the previous chaos. In al-Andalus, the hunger for reunification, especially from the point of view of the caliphal legitimists, is reflected in numerous texts, which consider the Almoravids true saviours. Moreover, the Almoravid regime relied on the same social, political and ideological bases as the Seljuk sultanate in the East: acknowledgement of the (Abbasid) caliph’s weakness and the consequent possibility for an independent local authority to legitimize himself in practice due to delegation of power on the caliph’s part. All this added to an important connection with the Maliki elites, which had wielded indisputable influence ever since the Cordova emirate (Bennison 2016).

Yusuf b. Tashufin was succeeded by his son ‘Ali b. Yusuf (d. 1143), under whose government the first symptoms of Almoravid decadence became visible on three fronts: the Christian advance, the Andalusi unrest and the rise of the Almohads. Still in 1108, victory was attained at Uclés, and in 1110 the taifa of Zaragoza was conquered, but in 1118 the latter city fell to Alfonso I of Aragon. These mishaps were followed by the ever more pressing unrest of the Andalusis. In addition, the Almohad problem was growing ever more serious. When the son of the emir ‘Ali, Tashufin b. ‘Ali, took the reins of the empire in 1143, it was already fatally wounded. Only two years later, in 1145, the ‘prince of the Muslims’ fell in battle against the new North African power, the Almohads, which had been taking shape. In 1147, the successors of Ibn Tumart, founder of the Almohad movement, seized Marrakech, thus bringing the Almoravid dynasty to an end (Bennison 2016).

The Almohads

In the early 12th century, a reformationist movement rose up in the Maghrebi Atlas that changed completely the political, social and religious scenario of the Islamic West. Muhammad Ibn Tumart (d. 1130), founder of this new impulse, along with the Masmuda Berber tribes that supported him, was beginning to preach and impose his doctrine, a new orthodoxy, against the Almoravids. The members of this new reformationist spiral considered themselves the restorers of the original purity of Islam. The Almohad project relied on two pillars: obedience to the impeccable and infallible mahdi Ibn Tumart and to his successors, and radical unity, thus receiving the name of al-muwahhidun, i.e. the unitarians. Nevertheless, one may not speak of an Almohad ‘doctrine’, but of an ‘evolving doctrine’. Although Ibn Tumart’s successor, the self-proclaimed caliph ‘Abd al-Mu’min (d. 1163), conqueror of Marrakech and initiator of the seizing of al-Andalus, tried to continue the mahdi’s alleged prescriptions, the second caliph, Abu Ya‘qub (d. 1184), tended much more towards the philosophical elites, whereas the winner of the Battle of Alarcos, al-Mansur (d. 1199), turned to the traditionalists (Bennison 2016)....

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Figures
• Contributors
• Preface
• 1. Al-Andalus
• 2. Granada
• 3. Castile-Leon
• 4. Crown of Aragon
• 5. The Kingdom of Navarre
• 6. Portugal
• 7. The Spanish imperial wars of the 16th century
• Conclusions
• Glossary
• Index