Directions in Technical Writing and Communication

Jay Gould, Jay R Gould

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2020
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• eBook ISBN:
  9781351844710
• Subtopic: Mental Health in Psychology
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

Teachers of technical writing are frequently handicapped by a lack of material to back up discussions in the classroom and in textbooks. This title helps to overcome this weakness.

PART ONE

What Is Technical Communication?

CHAPTER 1

A New Approach to Effective Writing^*

ROBERT R. RATHBONE

Professor of Literature
Department of Humanities
Massachusetts institute of Technology

While enroute to a seminar in California last spring, I was asked by a fellow passenger what I did for a living. When I explained that I taught technical writing at MIT, he stared at me for a moment and then remarked: “Good Lord, don’t tell me they teach engineers to write that way.”

Although his remark was intended as friendly humor, it became clear as our conversation continued that he shared the unfortunate impression still held by a large segment of the general public—engineers and scientists can’t write. Because the trip lasted only five hours, I’m afraid I was unable to make him change his mind.

Naturally, I reject any notion that relegates technical students to the rank of illiterate. But I do not wish to imply that technical writing is intrinsically good writing. Indeed, there is abundant evidence that it still needs to be improved at all levels, not just at the undergraduate level. Technical people on the whole readily admit the deficiency; however, seldom do they force themselves to do something positive about it. Some students, in fact, seem to be easily persuaded to settle for a peaceful coexistence with the English language.

The following suggestions are intended as a plan of attack for engineers and scientists, young or old, who are willing to take the initiative.

Writing as a Problem in Communications

My first suggestion is to approach a writing problem as you would a problem in engineering or design. Whenever you write a technical report, you involve yourself and your reader in many communication functions. These functions constitute the basic elements of a communications system; therefore, the better you understand the systems the better you will be able to satisfy the requirements of any given assignment.

It is not necessary to construct a mathematical model in order to understand the theory involved. The simple block diagram presented by Messrs. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in The Mathematical Theory of Communication¹ will serve the purpose nicely.

Their system, as shown in Figure 1, consists of five distinct elements:

Figure 1. Shannon-Weaver mechanical communications system.

The Information Source provides the inputs from which a message is formed.

The Transmitter transforms the message into signals and transfers the signals to a distribution medium.

The Mechanical Channel is the means for carrying the signals to a receiver.

The Receiver reconstructs the signals into the original message.

The Destination translates the message into meaningful information.

Shannon and Weaver used the diagram to describe the operation of a telephone system. Their concept of noise in the mechanical channel is readily understood within this context, since in practice such a system would not be noise-free.

Using this first diagram as a point of departure, we can now construct a simple model of a system that employs the written report as the communication channel (Figure 2). At the originating end there are three elements instead of two: an Information Source, a Semantic Encoder, and a Transmitter. Together they constitute the functions that must be performed by the writer. The Information Source is the mind of the writer, assisted by external memory devices such as notes, data sheets, and other reports. It selects the message to be transmitted and determines the thesis and intent. The Semantic Encoder selects the type of channel to be used (formal report, informal memorandum, journal article, etc.) and “codes” the message into appropriate mental symbols (words, numbers, mathematical symbols, etc.). The Transmitter performs the physical act of changing the symbols into the graphic signals that appear on the pages of the writing.

Figure 2. Technical report as a communications system.

The element in the middle, the Mechanical Channel, is the finished written report. Its design characteristics are a composite of:

1. the characteristics of the signals it carries,

2. the structures (grammatical, logical, mechanical) into which these signals are placed,

3. the organizational structure of the subject matter, and

4. the physical format itself.

At the receiving end, the three elements (Receiver, Semantic Decoder, and Destination) represent the multiple functions of the reader. First, he reads the signals, sending them to the brain as coded symbols. Next, he translates the symbols into a message. And finally, he interprets the message, reconstructing the writer’s thesis and intent and deciding what to do with the information received.

Noise, unfortunately, can (and does) originate within this system. Semantic Noise includes faulty word choice (resulting in ambiguity, wordiness, and vagueness), improper sentence and paragraph structure, failure to put thoughts into a context consistent with the experience of the reader, and poor organization of material. Mechanical Noise includes spelling errors, errors or inconsistencies in typography, sloppy layout of illustrations, overcrowding of text on a page, and any physical property that might slow the reader down or cause him to misread. Psychological Noise is any emotional reaction by the reader that reduces his ability to reconstruct the message properly. Doubt, boredom, disagreement, anger, and indifference are the common negative reactions of technical readers. The source may be the message itself, the semantic or mechanical noise in the system, or some external stimulus.

The writer is the primary instigator of all noise. He alone is responsible for any semantic noise that creeps into his writing, because he is the one who generates it. He also must be held responsible for any mechanical noise in the system, even though it may be generated by others (e.g., the typist, the draftsman, the printer). Moreover, he is directly responsible for any psychological noise at the receiving end if he has not carefully identified his reader’s needs and attempted to meet them. A reasonable conclusion is that the writer must achieve a favorable signal-to-noise ratio in his message if he is to communicate successfully. In general, readers do not expect inexperienced writers to produce noise-free communications. However, they do expect a signal level that will permit them to reconstruct the original message easily.

The key to successful operation of the system, then, is control of noise. The suggestions that follow relate directly to that problem.

Establish the Proper Interface

There is no feedback loop in a writer-reader communication system, so if you are to match your output impedance with the input impedance of your receiver you must put yourself in his place. What is his technical background? His job? His interests? His purpose in reading your report? What services will he expect from you, the writer?

The answer to the last question, of course, is that he will expect many of the things that you expect from the authors of the communications you read:

A title that represents the true coverage of the subject.

An abstract that summarizes the high points, giving quantitative information whenever possible.

An introduction that provides sufficient briefing on the problem and purpose so that the discourse can be followed intelligently.

An orderly presentation of the evidence, emphasized by judicious use of headings and subheadings, that proceeds from the familiar to the unfamiliar, from the whole to the parts.

A clear separation of fact and opinion.

An evaluation that follows logically from the facts and that leads logically to any recommendations.

A clear, readable style that incorporates visual aids wherever verbal signals are inadequate or cumbersome.

A division of the subject matter that will show what material is primary and what is secondary.

Control Psychological Noise

A primary need of any reader of technical material is to be able to follow the subject matter without being distracted or annoyed by the method the author uses to develop it. Yet some authors handle their papers as though they were writing a mystery story. They begin with a baffling title, they withhold a few pertinent facts in the introduction, they include extraneous information, they report false leads, they build up undue suspense, they assign an inordinate amount of space to subplots, and they leave some of their own questions unanswered. In short, they make the reader play detective and solve the case for himself.

Nor is the trouble limited to their coverage and organization of a subject. They frequently cause even more damage with the way they express themselves. Presumably no writer wants to insult his reader, intentionally or unintentionally. Still, one of the quickest ways to achieve the result is to tell the reader that something is obvious or clear—when to him it isn’t obvious or clear at all. Repeated often enough, the ruse will produce unbearable psychological noise and eventually succeed in frustrating him completely. The following are sobering examples:

• It should be obvious from the summarizing equations in the appendix that resonance is achieved through direct gammaray interactions.

• Although the tests were inconclusive, it is clear that the over-all project was a success.

• As you can readily see, the factorial design makes very efficient use of the information in each run and reveals the presence of interaction between factors, each based on a variety of experimental conditions.

Similarly, nothing can destroy a reader’s confidence more effectivel...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• Part I – What Is Technical Communication?
• Part II – Basic Forms of Technical Communication
• Part III – Technical Communication in Practice
• Part IV – Evaluating Technical Communication
• Part V – Viewpoints in Technical Communication