Thinking English Translation

Analysing and Translating English Source Texts

Stella Cragie, Ann Pattison

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN: 9781138713949
• eBook ISBN: 9781351859189
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Languages
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

Thinking English Translation is a practical guide to analysing and translating English source texts.

Section I focuses on pre-translation analysis where students are guided to consider the features of a variety of English texts and the various implications for translation into other languages.

Section II examines language variety in English in more detail and provides strategies for dealing with translation challenges in a wide range of text types.

Thinking English Translation gives students a framework for a better understanding of how to approach source texts in order to tackle translation assignments, whether in class or in the workplace, with confidence.

Stella Cragie a Qualified Member of the Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and former Principal Lecturer in Translation at the University of Westminster, is now a freelance translator.

Ann Pattison is a former Senior Lecturer in Translation at the University of Westminster and now works as a freelance translator, editor and writer.

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1 Pre-translation analysis

Criteria and features

Levels of reading

How the ST is read and understood is crucial for both pre-translation analysis and the translation process itself. In effect, a text is read at multiple levels and in different ways before, during and after the translation process, taking into account the following factors:

i) the stage that the translation process has reached;

ii) the familiarity of the reader with the ST subject matter;

iii) the efficiency and effectiveness of ST comprehension as regards language, sense and information;

iv) the translation brief where provided (i.e. the information and instructions given to the translator when the translation is assigned).

Exploring these factors shows that reading is a more intricate and relevant activity than may be imagined.

i) The reading stages of the translation process can be broken down into: a) the commissioning or assignment stage; b) pre-translation reading; c) in-translation reading; d) post-translation reading.

a) The commissioning/assignment stage. This is the point at which the translator is exposed to the ST offered as a professional assignment or as an academic translation. A translation services provider (TSP – a company or agency acting as an intermediary between the end-client and the translator) sends the ST, usually by email, to a translator ‘on its books’, who then accepts or refuses the job (or negotiates the terms of the assignment).

Decisions of acceptance tend to be based on factors such as: the translator’s availability, language combination, subject competence, experience of working with similar text types, the deadline set by the work provider and the level of remuneration. Acceptance of a job offered by a TSP is frequently time-critical, as the end-client may have urgent need of the translation or may still be deciding where to ‘place’ the translation, thus putting pressure on the intermediary to firm up a quote for the job. The translator, in turn, is under pressure to accept (or refuse) the job. If the translator refuses it, the TSP will need to find another translator who is willing to take it on. Pressure at the commissioning stage may cause the translator to only scan the ST in haste, especially if it is a lengthy document. Placing the job is less time-critical if the deadline is not particularly urgent.

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When a translator is contacted directly by a client (rather than through an intermediary) there may be more room for manoeuvre concerning the deadline. However, direct clients do not always understand how crucial the time factor is when producing a translation to a professional standard, and at times they may try to impose unrealistic deadlines. This pressure may also lead to a less than thorough reading of the ST.

Where the ST is set as an exam task, the translator starts from point b) in the process.

b) Pre-translation reading: Before starting to translate, it is advisable to read the entire ST (though this may not be practical if it is long). Initial scrutiny of the ST at stage a) may only reveal certain obvious features, such as the topic or specialist subject, some lexis and terminology, and the basic argument or logic. Features such as cultural references, style and register, specialist terminology, abbreviations, acronyms and extra-contextual references may need further research. Generally speaking, this is the reading stage where potential challenges start to emerge, and where a general strategy or framework for the translation takes shape. Here, reading is aimed at comprehension and situating the content and context, rather than predicting transfer into the TL, but the presence of potential challenges creates ‘landmarks’ in the ST, and these will eventually play a crucial role in the translation process.

Although there are time constraints in translation exams, the importance of a thorough reading of the ST should not be underestimated. Grasping essential text markers from the outset ensures a more confident approach to the task and helps build a picture of the text’s logic, thus creating a solid framework for translation.

c) In-translation reading: This is the stage where reading becomes an interactive process, engaging the translator in a dialogue with the ST. The way translators read the ST while engaged in the translation process is not simply linear, though a standard text is generally set out in a linear manner, by convention, as a set of interlinked sentences and paragraphs. It may contain references to items already mentioned (anaphora), to items referred to further on (cataphora) and extra-contextual references. The title of an article may contain figurative language, such as a play on words, reduced or ‘telegraphic’ forms, very specialist language or phrasing, which could cause problems where no basic framework has been established for the translation. For example, it may be preferable to postpone translating the title until the end of the translation process, when the translator has a clearer idea of the full and intended meaning of the ST. At any point in the translation it may be helpful to re-read preceding passages in order to clarify the argument or logic, shed light on unclear references, make adjustments to the draft translation, or ‘fast-forward’ so as to identify elements further on in the text capable of providing strategic information. Another factor to bear in mind is that the cohesion and coherence of the TT derive not only from the building blocks of the discourse itself, but from the intertextual relations that are created. Sometimes underestimated, cohesion and coherence play a crucial role in the success of the ST and TT as pieces of writing, and in their ability to signpost a text’s ‘direction of travel’.

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In texts with specific layout features, such as certificates, legal documents, text with bullet points and/or lists, diagrams or tables, reading is essential to ‘make the connections’ between fragmented text, where standard cohesive devices are absent. Where there is decontextualisation (the lack of context or background), the translator has to piece together the information and reassemble it logically.

In a translation exam it is tempting, not surprisingly, to translate in a linear manner, one step at a time. While this approach may seem reasonable, if the process becomes too fragmented the translator may lose sight of the overall picture. Cross-referencing within the ST while translating helps candidates to avoid creating ‘watertight compartments’ and encourages a more informed treatment of the ST.

Where translators use Translation Memory (TM) tools, the reading effort may involve several actions: a) reading all of the ST segments; b) reading the ST a segment at a time; c) reading the raw translation provided by the TM (where provided). Where a raw translation is generated by the software, reading serves to verify and/or edit the accuracy and appropriateness of the TM segment.

d) Post-translation reading: On completion of the draft TT, it should be read through in order to: 1) check there are no omissions of any functional elements; 2) assess the accuracy of the message transfer; 3) check that any translation queries have been dealt with; and 4) ensure that the TT reads like a piece of original writing in the TL. It is quite a ‘tall order’ to expect all these tasks to be conducted at the same time (even though translators are good at multi-tasking), so it is advisable to review the TT in at least two stages (where time allows). First, the TT needs checking against the ST for completeness and accuracy of message transfer; second, it should be read as a piece of writing in the TL in its own right (rather than as a translation), and edits made to punctuation and presentation where appropriate.

In translation exams, reading is obviously very time-critical, but it is sometimes neglected in favour of ‘getting on with the job’. Pacing the progress of the translation against the clock to ensure sufficient time for completion and checking is a skill that should be practised and applied in advance, to avoid careless mistakes in typing and spelling, omissions and – crucially – errors in conveying the information.

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ii) Familiarity with subject matter: A translation that is fit for purpose in terms of the accuracy of concepts, facts, figures and message benefits from preliminary and active in-translation reading, as stressed above. Research that is pertinent to the topic may already have been carried out on previous occasions, and any subject-specific glossaries, technical material or references may well come in useful. Sources and materials, in the form of hard copy or web-based corpora, may need reviewing to assess their usefulness for a new translation assignment. Researching the topic will probably involve web-based resources, possibly lengthy ones, and reading – if done properly – can impact significantly on the time available for producing a polished translation. Locating, reading and appraising reference materials is to some extent an open-ended activity, the impact of which needs to be calculated early on in the translation process.

iii) Efficiency and effectiveness of ST comprehension – grammar, syntax and sense: Reading is an integrated activity that not only enables the translator to grasp the ST’s basic characteristics and build a picture of its content and sense, but also one that involves decoding (or understanding) the formal aspects of ST discourse. While it is vital to gain an overall picture of ‘what is going on’, it is also important to correctly interpret the grammatical and syntactic values of individual forms and structures. Where the SL syntax differs considerably from that of the TL, especially where the SL is more complex and intricate than the TL, it is important that any information is correctly transferred to the TT where grammatical or syntactic changes are made. Misreading or misunderstanding verb and tense use, for example, is a particular pitfall when a tense or verb form (e.g. the present simple) is used differently in the SL and TL. Directly transferring a present simple, present continuous or present conditional from English into the TL may result in confusion, lack of authenticity, or error.

Reading is an instrument for comprehension, in which the translator decodes the ST’s content and discourse, deploying a varied skill set.

iv) The translation brief: Understanding the text in context (contextualisation) is aided by any relevant information supplied by the client, work provider or by an exam rubric. A translation brief takes various forms, depending on its function and purpose. In a translation exam, for example, a brief is usually provided to assist candidates with contextualisation, and typically includes the source of the ST (author, title, date of publication), the purpose or future use of the TT, and any specific instructions as to how to perform the translation task. In a professional context, previous translations of related materials may be requested from the client or provided automatically. However, in the professional environment it is rather rare for detailed briefs to be provided by intermediaries. This may be due to the lack of detail supplied by the intermediary’s client or even a desire to preserve client confidentiality. With a direct client, it may be easier to obtain a specific translation brief. Given the frequently tight deadlines for translation, however, it may not be possible to obtain relevant or useful information for a working brief. What is indisputable is that – where it exists – a translation brief usually results in a more informed understanding of the ST, and can guide the research effort. Where a brief is lacking, the translator can only use his or her experience to make assumptions about the purpose of the translation and the target readership. Translation strategies and solutions chosen on previous similar occasions may come in useful, though generally assumptions need to be formulated on a case-by-case basis.

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Given the time constraints imposed on translators in an academic or professional context, it is little wonder that a thorough reading of the ST is not always conducted before starting the translation, as we have mentioned. A working translator may not have the luxury of taking time to consider all angles of the ST before committing to a job, and an exam candidate has relatively little time to assess the ST’s features. This ‘pressure-cooker’ atmosphere can give rise to a series of disadvantages.

The first is that a translator with little or no experience or understanding of the ST is hindered, even where the ST is short or of a type that may be considered predictable – for example, a marriage or birth certificate. Formatted documents, such as legal and administrative materials, may differ and nothing can be taken for granted in terms of content and scope. In many cases, even with short texts, specific features of the ST need investigating before the translation process can start. Translating segment by segment without considering the whole text tends to generate a product that is uncoordinated and fragmentary, without any overall cohesion and coherence, over and beyond any considerations of accuracy and appropriateness. In fact, even the possible advantage of a quicker turnaround may be an illusion, if – for example – it becomes clear while translating that further research into specialist terms and concepts is needed to produce an accurate and appropriate translation. Some short texts are particularly awkward – for example, captions for illustrations or diagrams (which may not be available to the trans...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Thinking English Translation
• Titles of related interest
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• 1 Pre-Translation Analysis: Criteria and Features
• 2 English as a Source Language
• 3 Sample Analyses
• 4 Sample Translations
• Glossary
• Bibliography
• Index