Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook

Spatial, Mechanical, Thermal, and Radiation Measurement

John G. Webster, Halit Eren, John G. Webster, Halit Eren

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN: 9781138072176
• eBook ISBN: 9781351833349
• Topic: Medicine
• Subtopic: Biotechnology in Medicine

The Second Edition of the bestselling Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook brings together all aspects of the design and implementation of measurement, instrumentation, and sensors. Reflecting the current state of the art, it describes the use of instruments and techniques for performing practical measurements in engineering, physics, chemistry, and the life sciences and discusses processing systems, automatic data acquisition, reduction and analysis, operation characteristics, accuracy, errors, calibrations, and the incorporation of standards for control purposes.

Organized according to measurement problem, the Spatial, Mechanical, Thermal, and Radiation Measurement volume of the Second Edition:

• Contains contributions from field experts, new chapters, and updates to all 96 existing chapters
• Covers instrumentation and measurement concepts, spatial and mechanical variables, displacement, acoustics, flow and spot velocity, radiation, wireless sensors and instrumentation, and control and human factors

A concise and useful reference for engineers, scientists, academic faculty, students, designers, managers, and industry professionals involved in instrumentation and measurement research and development, Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook, Second Edition: Spatial, Mechanical, Thermal, and Radiation Measurement provides readers with a greater understanding of advanced applications.

I
Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts

1 Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors Halit Eren

Introduction

Measurements

1.3 Instruments

Analog and Digital Instruments

Sensors and Transducers

Instrumentation and Networks

Software Support for Sensors and Instruments

Application Examples

Bibliography

Partial List of Vendors and Suppliers

2 Characteristics of Instrumentation John R. Hansman, Jr.

Simple Instrument Model

Bibliography

3 Operational Modes of Instrumentation Richard S. Figliola

Null Instrument

Deflection Instrument

Analog and Digital Sensors

Analog and Digital Readout Instruments

Input Impedance

Defining Terms

Further Information

5 Measurement Accuracy Ronald H. Dieck

Error: The Normal Distribution and the Uniform Distribution

Measurement Uncertainty Model

Calculation of Expanded Uncertainty

Summary

Defining Terms

References

Further Information

6 Development of Standards Halit Eren

Introduction

Standard Organizations

Development of Standards

Obtaining and Using Standards

Examples of Standards

Software Standards

Bibliography

7 Measurement Standards DeWayne B. Sharp

Historical Perspective

What Are Standards?

Conceptual Basis of Measurements

Need for Standards

Types of Standards

Numbers, Dimensions, and Units

Multiplication Factors

Conversions of Units

Examples of Defining Terms

Bibliography

8 Calibrations in Instrumentation and Measurements Halit Eren

Introduction

Errors and Uncertainties in Calibrations

Benefits of Calibrations

Calibration Procedure and Personnel

Calibration Methods

Laboratories and Institutions

Calibration Software Support

Cost of Calibrations

Trends in Calibrations

Calibration Examples

Bibliography

Partial List of Calibration Service and Software Providers

9 Intelligent Sensors and Instruments Halit Eren Introduction

Intelligent Sensors

The IEEE 1451 Standard

Communications of Intelligent Sensors

Plug-and-Play Capability

Applications and Examples of Intelligent Sensors

Intelligent Instruments

Examples of Intelligent Instruments

References

Bibliography

Partial List of Manufacturers/Suppliers

10 Virtual Instruments David Potter and Halit Eren

Introduction

Virtual Instrument Architecture

Virtual Instrument Software

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

Conclusions

Bibliography

Partial List of Suppliers

11 Fail-Safe Instruments and Devices Davide Quatrini, Giuseppe Fazio, Mauro Giaconi, and Adelio Salsano

Introduction

Fail-Safe Realization: Relevant Features

Fail-Safe Realization: In-Depth Example

Case Study: Level 1 ERTMS

Summary

References

12 Dynamic Error Measurements of Force Sensors Akihiro Takita, Jin Tao, and Yusaku Fujii

Introduction

Problems and Solutions of Dynamic Calibrations

Evaluation of Dynamic Characteristics of Force Sensors

Impulse Response

Oscillation Response

Conclusions

References

1

Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors

Halit Eren

Curtin University

1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Measurements
3. 1.3 Instruments
   1. Design of Instruments
   2. Testing and Use of Instruments
   3. Response and Drift
   4. Accuracy and Errors
   5. Error Reduction
   6. Calibration of Instruments
4. 1.4 Analog and Digital Instruments
   1. Analog Instruments
   2. Digital Instruments
5. 1.5 Sensors and Transducers
   1. Smart Sensors
   2. Wireless and Autonomous Sensors and Instruments
6. 1.6 Instrumentation and Networks
7. 1.7 Software Support for Sensors and Instruments
8. 1.8 Application Examples
9. Bibliography
10. Partial List of Vendors and Suppliers

1.1 Introduction

Measurement is a process of gathering information from a physical world and comparing this information with agreed standards. As highlighted in this chapter and discussed in detail in this book, measurements are essential activities for observing and testing scientific and technological investigations.

Measurements are carried out by using instruments, which are designed and manufactured to fulfill specific tasks. Sensors are used as the primary elements in instruments to respond to the physical variable under investigation. In this book, a diverse range of sensors and instruments are discussed; the advances and the recent developments in measurements, instrumentation, and sensors are introduced in the proceeding sections and chapters.

In many applications, many sensors and instruments are used to collect information about the process under investigation. These instruments are connected together using wired, optical, or wireless networks. The details of the supporting hardware and software technologies behind these networks are discussed extensively.

1.2 Measurements

If the behavior of the physical variable is known, its performance can be monitored and assessed by means of suitable methods of sensing, signal conditioning, and termination. The applications of instruments range from laboratory conditions to arduous environments such as inside nuclear reactors or remote locations such as satellite systems and spaceships.

The sensor-output signals of the majority of modern instruments are in electric form. This is due to electric signals being easy to process, display, store, and transmit. Once converted to electric forms, the relation between the sensor signals and the physical variations can be expressed in the form of transfer functions. The transfer function is a mathematical model between the sensor signal and the physical variable. In a continuous system, the transfer function may be linear or nonlinear. A linear relationship may be expressed by the following equation:

y=a+bx00000000000000(1.1)

where

1. y is the electric signal
2. x is the physical stimulus
3. a is the intercept on the y-axis, which gives the output signal for a zero input
4. b is the slope that is also known as the sensitivity

In ideal cases, this relationship should be consistent without any errors, nonlinearity, or deviation.

However, in measurements, there may be many sources of errors; therefore, it is important to identify these sources and draw up an error budget by considering factors, such as

• Imperfections in electric and mechanical components (e.g., high tolerances and noise or offset voltages)
• Changes in component performances (e.g., shift in gains, changes in chemistry, aging, and drifts in offsets)
• External and ambient influences (e.g., temperature, pressure, and humidity)
• Inherent physical fundamental laws (e.g., thermal and other electric noises, Brownian motion in materials, and radiation)

Once the measurements are made, various forms of data analysis may be used to extract useful information about the measurements and draw conclusions. Data a...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Preface
• Editors
• PART I Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts
• PART II Spatial Variables
• PART III Displacement
• PART IV Mechanical Variables
• PART V Acoustics
• PART VI Flow and Spot Velocity
• PART VII Thermal and Temperature Measurement
• PART VIII Radiation
• PART IX Wireless Instrumentation
• PART X Control and Human Factors
• Appendix: Units and Conversions
• Index