Language Aptitude

Advancing Theory, Testing, Research and Practice

Zhisheng (Edward) Wen, Peter Skehan, Adriana Biedroń, Shaofeng Li, Richard L. Sparks, Zhisheng (Edward) Wen, Peter Skehan, Shaofeng Li, Richard L. Sparks, Adriana Biedroń

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• eBook ISBN: 9781351348263
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Linguistics
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

Language Aptitude: Advancing Theory, Testing, Research and Practice brings together cutting-edge global perspectives on foreign language aptitude. Drawing from educational psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience, the editors have assembled interdisciplinary authors writing for an applied linguistics and education audience. The book is broken into five major themes: revisiting and updating current language aptitude theories and models; emerging insights from contemporary research into language aptitude and the age factor or the critical period hypothesis; redefining constructs and broadening territories of foreign language aptitude; exploring language aptitude from a neurocognitive perspective; and exploring future directions of foreign language aptitude research. Focused on critical issues in foreign language aptitude and second language learning and teaching, this book will be an important research resource and supplemental reading in both applied linguistics and cognitive psychology.

1
Introduction and Overview

Zhisheng (Edward) Wen, Peter Skehan, Adriana Biedroń, Shaofeng Li, and Richard L. Sparks

Researching Language Aptitude: From Prediction to Explanation

In its broadest sense, the concept of foreign language aptitude refers to the special talent that allows one to learn a foreign or second language (L2) faster and more effectively than others (Carroll, 1962, 1981, 1990). Since its inception in the late 1950s and 1960s, foreign language aptitude underwent a period of relative marginalization that lasted for several decades (Skehan, 1998, 2012; Wen, Biedroń, & Skehan, 2017). Since the early 2000s, however, there has been a renewed enthusiasm for language aptitude research (as shown visually in Figure 17.1 from Vuong & Wong, this volume). When contemporary foreign language aptitude is interpreted from the framework of developmental paths and essential constituents of an aptitude theory (e.g., as conceived by Snow, 1992), the half-century period (from the 1950s to the 2000s) could be considered the first phase of aptitude research. This period was dominated by John Carroll’s early work, especially his Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT, Carroll & Sapon, 1959/2002), and characterized by a strong focus on psychometric testing and Carroll’s four-factor aptitude model, which has provided a strong foundation for ensuing language aptitude research. These four factors comprised phonetic coding ability, inductive language learning ability, grammatical sensitivity, and rote memory (Carroll, 1981, 1990, 1993). Most other aptitude tests developed in this period or later and either were benchmarked against or were variants of the MLAT (see also Stansfield & Reed, this volume).

Indeed, when it comes to predicting ultimate foreign language learning success, the predictive power of the MLAT has been unparalleled, even until today (Li, 2015, 2016; Skehan, 2002, 2012). In subsequent validations and evaluations of the MLAT, Carroll (1981, 1990) tended to believe that there might not be much room for further improving the predictive power of the MLAT. He was also confident of the four essential language aptitude components that had been derived from his factor analyses and were assessed by the MLAT. Despite its impressive predictive validity, both the MLAT and the concept of foreign language aptitude have been criticized (for example, see Neufeld, 1979; Krashen, 1981). One criticism was that the construct of language aptitude still needed to be fully specified (Li, 2016; McLaughlin, 1995; Miyake & Friedman, 1998; Skehan, 1998, 2002). That is, Carroll’s MLAT, predictive as it is of final learning outcomes, nevertheless has been seen as falling short of offering an overarching framework for explaining L2 learning, processing, and development. This criticism translated into the impetus for the second phase of language aptitude research, towards the theory-constructing phase (Wen, 2016; Wen et al., 2017; cf. Snow, 1992).

Currently, language aptitude research has entered a new era, or as it has been called elsewhere, the ‘Theory-Construction’ phase (Snow, 1992; Wen, 2016; Wen et al., 2017). Entering this new era, aptitude research has witnessed not just an expansion in research scope but also a slight change in research focus. On the one hand, continued efforts are being made to develop new aptitude test batteries with a view to complementing the MLAT. For example, the Cognitive Ability of Novelty in the Acquisition of Language-Foreign (i.e., the CANAL-F test) attempts to tap into learners’ cognitive ability to handle ‘novelty’ in linguistic materials (Grigorenko, Sternberg, & Ehrman, 2000), and a high-level language aptitude battery (i.e., Hi-LAB) aims to be particularly effective in predicting success at high levels of accomplishment (Doughty, 2014; Linck et al., 2014).

In addition to the development of new test batteries, more emphasis has been placed on the ‘explanatory’ power of foreign language aptitude as a central construct of individual differences to account for L2 acquisition and processing (Ellis, 2004; Robinson, 2005, 2012; Skehan, 2012, 2016; Wen, 2016). Currently, concerted efforts are being mobilized from multiple disciplines, including applied linguistics, educational psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience, towards this ambitious goal (Wen, 2016; Wen et al., 2017). As demonstrated in some recent volumes on language aptitude (e.g., Granena, Jackson, & Yilmaz, 2016; Granena & Long, 2013; Hyltenstam, Bartning, & Fant, 2018; Reiterer, 2018), the contemporary research agenda endeavors to both disentangle and elucidate potential cognitive and neuropsychological aptitude constructs underlying and facilitating L2 acquisition, real-time language processing, and long-term linguistic development from multidisciplinary perspectives (Wen et al., 2017). As part of the joint research efforts, the current volume aims to both reflect current progress in language aptitude research and, more importantly, to foster further development in theory, testing, research, and practice.

Rationale and Motivations for This Volume

The direct motivation for compiling this volume originated from a recent state-of-the-art review article published by three of the editors in Language Teaching (Wen et al., 2017). Following that article, they agreed that the concept of foreign language aptitude should be revisited and needed to be reconceptualized from multiple perspectives that subsumed contemporary and emerging insights from applied linguistics, educational psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience. Therefore, they decided to organize an international roundtable forum on language aptitude and then edit a volume with contributions from the forum. (For the edited volume, two additional editors, Shaofeng Li and Richard L. Sparks, joined the editorial team.)

The International Roundtable Forum on ‘Language Aptitude’ was successfully held at the Macao Polytechnic Institute and the University of Macau between 6 and 9 June 2017. During the forum, most contributing authors to the current volume (except for a few who could not attend) presented their individual chapters and participated actively in the roundtable discussions of relevant issues. The edited volume is based on the major papers presented at the aptitude roundtable, plus those of the authors who were unable to attend the forum. The editors identified five major themes that emerged from the papers: (1) updating current language aptitude theories and testing instruments; (2) emerging issues and insights from more contemporary research into the long-standing relationships between language aptitude, age, and ultimate attainment; (3) redefining cognitive constructs and models; (4) perspectives from cognitive neuroscience; and (5) providing final commentaries reflecting on current practices, identifying future directions and research agendas. In the next section, we briefly highlight the key issues discussed in each chapter under these major themes.

An Outline of the Book

Theme I: Updating Aptitude Tests and Theories

The first section of the volume contains four chapters that revisit and update aptitude tests and aptitude theories. The first chapter, co-authored by Charles W. Stansfield and Daniel J. Reed, is entitled, “The MLAT at 60 Years”. As the title clearly indicates, this chapter tracks the historical development of the most important language aptitude test by all standards, the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), over its 60-years history. After a brief background of John Carroll’s early work, the authors briefly review different versions of the MLAT that have been developed in several languages, including French, Arabic, Braille, Mandarin, and so on. As indicated by the authors, the adaptation of the MLAT and Carroll’s four language aptitude components to a different language has been a fundamental challenge to the test developer in each case. The chapter also describes the various end-user groups for the MLAT, including governments of many English-speaking countries and consulting psychologists who work with students. The chapter ends with a brief description of some criticisms leveled against the MLAT, the potential challenges it is currently facing, and future initiatives to make the battery available online.

The second chapter, entitled “Development and Preliminary Validation of a Foreign Language Aptitude Test for Chinese Learners of Foreign Languages”, contributed by Lanrong Li and Shaoqian (Sheila) Luo, continues with the running theme of aptitude testing. Since there has not been a valid tool for measuring the foreign language aptitude of Chinese EFL learners, these authors developed an aptitude test for this purpose (targeting learners aged over 16) and used Rasch modeling to examine its validity. A test battery with six subtests was constructed and administered to 158 Chinese high school and college students. Rasch analyses showed that the test had high reliability, the vast majority of the items in each subtest exhibited good fit to the Rasch model, and all subtests showed good unidimensionality, except for the subtests of auditory associative memory and inductive language learning ability. However, a small number of items in some subtests were found to be too easy for the students. The subtests correlated significantly with each other, except for one subtest measuring phonetic coding ability and vocabulary in Chinese. In terms of external validity, the two groups’ aptitude scores showed significant correlation with their English achievement scores. Overall, the chapter concludes that the test has satisfactory validity and reliability, though some subtests will need further revision and improvement in the future.

The third chapter, written by Peter Skehan and titled “Language Aptitude Implicates Language and Cognitive Skills”, discusses broader theoretical issues of language aptitude. In his chapter, Skehan calls for a more balanced view on the language aspect of the foreign language aptitude construct, that is, how linguistic skills contribute to foreign language aptitude in tandem with general cognitive skills. Such an issue is both relevant and timely, given that most current conceptualizations of the construct of foreign language aptitude seem to emphasize general cognitive capacities (such as the memory systems). The chapter begins with a clear thesis statement that equivocally argues for a place for linguistic abilities in conceptualizing foreign language aptitude. This is followed by a broad description of a series of putative acquisitional processes that give rise to aptitude constructs that can be further conceptualized and measured in future research. In this macro-SLA aptitude model, processes at early stages are mainly concerned with handling sound materials and pattern identification, while later stages are characterized by automatization or proceduralization of such sounds and patterns. The chapter’s position is that even at these later stages, language abilities are still relevant, and these abilities should be fully incorporated into theoretical conceptions and assessment of aptitude in the future.

The last chapter in the first section, by Shaofeng Li, is entitled “Six decades of Language Aptitude Research: A Comprehensive and Critical Review”. This chapter is a synthetic review based on the results of three meta-analytical studies conducted by the author that have explored the associations of language aptitude with other individual difference (ID) variables and learning outcomes. Overall, the synthesis shows that aptitude is (a) a domain-specific cognitive device for language learning that should be distinguished from other cognitive and affective variables; (b) more important at initial rather than advanced stages of L2 learning; (c) essential for adult language learning rather than child language learning; and (d) more correlated with the effects of explicit instruction than those of implicit instruction. The chapter concludes with a discussion of methodological issues such as inconsistency in the measurement of aptitude and learning gains and the implementation of instructional treatments. The chapter also proposes future research directions towards matching instruction with aptitude profiles, adopting an eclectic approach, and using instruction that does not implicate aptitude.

Theme II: Language Aptitude, Age, and Ultimate Attainment

The second section contains four chapters that revisit the long-standing issues of the age factor and L2 ultimate attainment as these relate to language aptitude. The first chapter in this section, written by Amelia Lambelet and Raphael Berthele, is entitled, “Difficulty and Ease in Learning Foreign Languages at the Primary School Level: General Learning Ability, Language Aptitude or Working Memory?” On the basis that most language aptitude tests were developed to assess adults and young adults, this chapter aims to fill the lacuna by focusing on testing language aptitude at the primary school level. The author first reviews the literature on language aptitude in a school context and then discusses data from a pilot study drawn from a larger empirical research project on aptitude and foreign language learning at the primary school level in German-speaking Switzerland (involving children aged between 8 and 11). In this research project, aptitude tests as well as working memory tests and general learning ability tests were used, whose results shed light on a better understanding of children’s difficulty in learning foreign languages in a primary school setting.

In the second chapter in this theme, Richard L. Sparks, Jon Patton, and Julie Luebbers contribute an investigation entitled “Language aptitude: Insights From US High School Students”. In the empirical study reported in the chapter, monolingual US high school students were followed through Spanish courses at three levels (I, II, and III). At the beginning of Spanish I, they were administered a large test battery consisting of measures of L1 reading and writing achievements, L1 oral language and vocabulary, phonological and working memory, metacognition, and L2 aptitude (i.e., MLAT). They were then followed through three years of Spanish courses and administered standardized measures of Spanish, including word decoding, spelling, reading comprehension, writing, listening comprehension, and vocabulary, at the end of each year. Factor analyses of the test battery yielded four factors that explained 64% of the variance in Spanish achievement and could be labeled Language Analysis, Phonological/Orthographic, Phonological and Working Memory, and Rote Memory. These four factors then were used as predictor variables to explain the students’ achievements in the six Spanish skills. Results from regression analyses showed that different factors explained the largest amount of variance in different Spanish skills. For example, Spanish word decoding and Spanish spelling skills were explained largely by the Phonological/Orthographic factor; Spanish reading comprehension by both the Language Analysis and Phonological/Orthographic factors; and Spanish listening comprehension and Spanish vocabulary by the Language Analysis, Phonological/Orthographic, and Phonological and Working Memory factors. The results are discussed with reference to studying an L2 in a monolingual context, when students are learning to speak and comprehend the L2 while at the same time learning to read and write the L2.

The third chapter in this section, authored by Michael Erard, is entitled, “Language Aptitude: Insights From Hyperpolyglots”. The chapter provides an overview of contemporary and historical cases of very gifted foreign language learners, polyglots, and savants and how they can inform research on language aptitude. Given the exceptional abilities or talents to build and maintain high proficiency in a large number and wide variety of languages, one might expect these hyperpolyglots to consider language learning aptitude relevant to their pursuits. However, as the author demonstrates in the chapter, this was actually not the case. The author also reports on results from an online survey with 390 individuals to unveil the reasons behind the low prevalence of hyperpolyglottism and the higher prevalence of certain types of multilingualism. Finally, the author discusses the challenges to studying the genetic basis of hyperpolyglottism and language aptitude and suggests directions for future language aptitude research falling into this line of inquiry.

The last chapter under this theme is by Adriana Biedroń. It is entitled “Language Aptitude: Insights From L2 Adult Exceptional Learners”. The chapter begins with basic terms such as foreign language aptitude, linguistic giftedness, and talent, which is followed by a more in-depth discussion of the age factor and its impacts on near-native-like proficiency and the dynamic nature of foreign language aptitude. The chapter ends with an outline for the various cognitive, personality, and neurological characteristics of different populations of exceptional learners, as well as similarities and differences between them.

Theme III: Redefining Cognitive Constructs and Models

The first chapter in this section, by Zhisheng (Edward) Wen, is entitled “Working Memory as Language Aptitude: The Phonological/Executive Model”. Building on multidisciplinary insights from cognitive sciences and applied linguistics, this chapter first highlights unifying characterizations of the working memory (WM) system as they relate to language acquisition, online processing, and long-term development, culminating in the central proposal of ‘WM as a language acquisition device’. Following this general overview, two key components of WM, i.e., the phonological component (PWM) and the executive component (EWM), are pinned down as key constructs of language aptitude, and their respective roles in specific SLA domains and skills are hypothesized. Such WM–SLA juxtapositions give rise to the overarching framework (i.e., the Phonological/Executive Model; Wen, 2015, 2016) for conceptualizing and implementing WM in SLA research. Specifically, it is postulated that the sound-based PWM component is a ‘language learning device’ that underlies the chunking process of L2 phonological sounds and linguistic sequences, which in turn lead to the acquisition and development of L2 lexis, phrases, and grammatical structures. On the other hand, EWM is conceived as a ‘language processing device’ that pl...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Contributors
• Foreword
• Acknowledgments
• 1 Introduction and Overview
• Part I Revisiting and Updating Tests and Theories
• Part II Emerging Insights on Age and Ultimate Attainment
• Part III Redefining Cognitive Constructs and Models
• Part IV Perspectives From Cognitive Neuroscience
• Part V Research Agenda and Future Directions
• Index