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A great deal of information has been denied to people with learning disabilities because of their difficulties in understanding or using standard text. This chapter looks at the role of symbols in supporting access to learning, particularly in relation to school curricula which in the UK includes the National Curriculum. In Chapter 6 the attention focuses on older students with a learning disability in their transition from school to the adult world, and in developing the life skills necessary to participate in society.
1. The role of symbols in learning
Most school-based learning takes place through the spoken and written word. We live in a very verbal society. Pupils who experience difficulties with these media will have difficulties throughout the whole of their education. McNamara and Moreton (1990) note that there is a tendency to deliver the curriculum, particularly in history, geography and science, through reading and writing. They found that âit is the very emphasis on reading skills that holds children up in their academic progressâ (ibid.: 7).
One of the major aims of education must be to give children maximum autonomy in their environment. Reading is one of the ways in which this can be achieved. By broadening the definition of reading to include the extraction of meaning from symbols, as well as from text, such autonomy can be offered to a wider range of children. (James 1993: 10)
The development of literacy is, therefore, of prime importance. However, if we are to help pupils with poor literacy skills to engage in the whole curriculum and to acquire other knowledge and understanding, we need to take steps to minimise the problems that literacy difficulties cause. This will impact both on the learning and the motivation of pupils with difficulties. There appears to be a close correlation between pupilsâ reading ability and their self-esteem (Chapman et al., cited in Macnamarra and Moreton 1990).
Symbols can provide a useful tool in breaking the cycle of underachievement.
Symbols enhance the participation of students with learning difficulties in a range of social and educational activities. They help to bring a sense of achievement, a precious tool in building self-esteem, and as such can make a valuable contribution to the lives and education of those with learning difficulties. (Carpenter 1995)
Carpenter and Morris (2001) and Abbott (2000) write extensively on ways in which symbols support communication and access to literacy for pupils with severe learning difficulties. Some pupils may use symbols as part of an alternative and augmentative system. For other pupils, symbols can give the means by which they can begin to develop literacy skills and access the full range of learning while some of the more intractable difficulties are being addressed. The very steps which provide access to learning across the curriculum will also provide the opportunities for developing literacy and a way which allows pupils to perceive their own development.
2. Supporting differentiation
Many pupils with learning difficulties are placed within a mainstream school, or within a teaching group with a very wide range of learning difficulties ⌠[This will] present teachers with the challenge of differentiating the teaching material so that it is accessible to all the pupils in the group, and of ensuring that all the pupils are able to demonstrate achievement and progression. (Martin and Gummett 2001: 83)
One infant class uses a range of materials to include all pupils at circle time at the beginning of each day. As well as collecting individual news, there is a general discussion about the weather, seasons and environment before moving on to discussion of the practical details of the dayâs activities. Pupils are encouraged to share their observations, such as birds in their garden, buds appearing, leaves falling, animals they have seen, as well as personal, local and national events they are aware of. The contributions are recorded by the teacher writing on the board and by pupils selecting symbols or pictures to illustrate their ideas. Presenting the material in pictorial, oral and written forms helps to accommodate the varying levels of reading and speaking ability within the group. The display stays up for the rest of the day, so that it can be looked at from time to time. This is a great help to some pupils who need a concrete form of communication to overcome the ephemeral nature of speech.
3. Supporting the curriculum
We have already discussed many strategies in which symbols can help children to construct and explore meaning in a general approach to developing literacy, through having reading materials and tools for writing. In the next sections we will illustrate how these strategies have been applied in specific curriculum areas.
English
The use of symbols to develop specific orthographic skills at word and sentence levels was discussed in Chapter 4, as well as the creation of symbol stories both by and for pupils with reading difficulties. This section will look particularly at ways that symbols may enhance access to literature.
In 1997 we wrote about first uses of symbols to bring poetry to pupils with severe learning difficulties. Since then it has become a normal part of exploring literature. That first example, which was from George Hastwell School, was written in the spring of 1992. Their school is in Cumbria, where William Wordsworth lived. Clare Martin translated this well-known poem for the group to be able to share in reciting it together. (Golden was represented by a piece of gold foil from a sweet wrapper.) It was at the time when the daffodils were in abundance and the pupils very much entered into the spirit and enjoyed the activity.
Figure 5.1 William Wordsworth, âDaffodilsâ
Since then, the school has brought a wealth of poetry to their pupils through their Literacy Summer Schools, described by Abbott (2000).
Other poetry has similarly been symbolised by teachers. The symbols may simply act as a reminder of the language, but for pupils who have difficulty reading and remembering, they can help to bring richer language within their grasp. Clearly some poetry lends itself to symbol support better than others. This poem by W.H. Auden (âFuneral Bluesâ) has clear concepts which make it easy to find symbol representations which can convey the same meanings.
Figure 5.2 W.H. Auden, âFuneral Bluesâ
However, another well-known poem, âThe Tygerâ by Blake, is more difficult. Although each individual word can just about be represented, the meaning of phrases such as âfearful symmetryâ may well be rather difficult for the reader. Simply rendering the poem in symbols will not necessarily make the concepts more accessible.
Figure 5.3 William Blake, âTiger, tigerâ
Strong rhythms and rhymes can help language development, but often the only âpoetryâ given to people with learning difficulties are nursery rhymes. Older students will need material which is more age appropriate. The examples above show that with the picture cues to help, it is not difficult to make this important form of literacy accessible across the age range. West Oaks School, Sheffield, project the words and symbols for the hymns they sing onto a screen. They did this at the Harvest festival to help families as well as the pupils from the school, in the same way that the symbols support the words of this popular Christmas song. In both of these contexts only the key words were given symbols. In this way the readers were given enough prompts to remind them of the words without the display being visually cluttered.
Figure 5.4 Shakinâ Stevens, âSnow is fallingâ
Grove (1998), in Literature for All, shows how imaginative approaches to the introduction of classical literature can enhance quality of education. It may not give the full and true text, but young people with learning difficulties are being introduced to classic texts. Students at George Hastwell School have performed versions of The Tempest and A Midsummer Nightâs Dream. The Tempest was performed by students using puppets. It is clear that the students were deeply involved in the productions and gained a great deal from the experience. They wrote their own symbol version of The Tempest, adding photographs of their puppets for the characters. The characters in the symbol version of A Midsummer Nightâs Dream were represented by photographs of the pupils in costume.
Collaborative writing
As well as individual creativity, collaborative writing can contribute to literacy and vocabulary development. Pupils without speech who use communication aids can find it difficult to join in collaborative work and discussion. At Wilson Stuart school they have a special Communication Group, that has sessions together in which they develop these skills.
Poetry, and story making are some of the ways that these nine-year-olds are encouraged to communicate. The group meets weekly with the aim of encouraging peer-to-peer communication. It has successfully worked on collaborative writing projects, including poetry. The pieces below are from a series of pieces in which they wrote about things they liked.
Figure 5.5 A poem based on Rap rhythms, made by communication aid users
Figure 5.6 An example of collaborative writing stories from a communication group
Although these examples illu...
