Her Voice, Her Faith

Women Speak On World Religions

Katherine Young, Arvind Sharma

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN: 9780367096809
• eBook ISBN: 9780429979651
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Gender Studies
• Index: Social Sciences

They say religion is a personal and private affair. But when a woman believes in a tradition, she has a relationship to that faith beyond her sacred space. Religious traditions' historically poor treatment of women has lead many to question why they believe. How has their tradition either embraced and enlightened, or excluded and confined women throughout history? Her Voice, Her Faith presents the personal and historical perspectives of women who not only live their faith day to day, but who also know their religion's history with women in general.

1
Hinduism

By Vasudha Narayanan

WHEN I WAS A CHILD in South India, my favorite festival was Navaratri, dedicated to three goddesses, Sarasvati, Lakshmi, and Durga. Navaratri, which means "nine nights," begins on the new moon that falls between mid-September and mid-October and runs through ten days. A room in our house would be set apart and filled with exquisite dolls for plays about the goddesses. Elaborate tableaux were put in place to depict stories from thousands of years of Hindu texts. In the center of the room were large images and clay dolls of the goddesses. As we set up the many scenes, my aunts or my grandmother would narrate tales connected with the tableaux. Some Hindus celebrate Navaratri to mark the victory of the goddess Durga over the buffalo-demon Mahisha. Others, especially in northern India, think of it as the time when Rama, the divine incarnation of the LordVishnu, battled with the demon Ravana.

Every evening during this fall festival, women and children wearing soft, bright silks visited each other, admired the kolu, or display of dolls, played musical instruments, and sang songs in praise of one or another of many Hindu deities, from the repertoire of South Indian classical music. It was a joyous time of festivity, music, elegance, and beauty—a glorious celebration of womanhood. The last two days were dedicated to Sarasvati and Lakshmi. These were special holidays, and we did not have to go to school. Large pictures of the two, draped with garlands of fresh flowers, were kept in front of the display of dolls.

On the day dedicated to Sarasvati, we solemnly put in front of her all our musical instruments, writing devices, selected textbooks, and the kolu, to be blessed by her for the year to come. We did not read or write that day: we relaxed while Sarasvati did the work, blessing every pen and pencil, the lonely typewriter, the string instruments called vinas, and every one of our science, geography, and algebra books. The next day, the victorious tenth day (Vijaya Dashami), is dedicated to Lakshmi.

But first we had to finish Sarasvati's business. After a ritual bath early in the morning, we lit lamps and incense, bowed down before her, picked up our pens and wrote "Sri" to begin the new scholarly year (this was not the calendrical new year) with an auspicious word. New prayers and pieces of music were learned; new knowledge was to be acquired that day. Even as children, we knew that Sarasvati was the goddess of learning and Lakshmi was the goddess of all good fortune; and on the last days of the Navaratri festival, the fortune of learning, the wealth of wisdom, and the joy of music were given to us, every year, by the grace of the goddesses. Victory was ours, for the rest of the year. After the victorious tenth day, the dolls returned to their boxes in the attic, and the pictures of Lakshmi and Sarasvati went back up on the walls in the family room.

Most Hindus learn about their religion through stories, music, and dance, going to temples, and participating in rituals, festivals, and pilgrimages. These are the first entry points and, for many, all the religion that they will get in life. In general, most Hindus living in India do not worry about religious doctrines, fixed times of prayers, or a historical unfolding of events.

Many introductory texts on Hinduism take the reader through an important and standard list of topics. These include the origins, that is, the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indo-Aryans; the earliest religious compositions starting with the Vedas and the emphasis on sacrifice; philosophical enquiry in the Upanishads; the two epics; the Bhagavad Gita, which is part of one of the epics, law books, the caste system, stages of life, six systems of philosophy; the important philosophers of Vedanta (Shankara, Ramanuja, Madhva, et al.); the devotional (bhakti) movement; and then fast forward to reforms in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This conceptual system is not one that we can necessarily label as just "male"; the credit for this descriptive list is shared between the high-caste brahmin male scholars, well versed in Sanskrit, who collaborated with the British in the production of the Hindu traditions, and Western scholars influenced by Enlightenment paradigms of history and religion. These lists are neither wrong nor unimportant, but they do exclude the experiences of women and the millions whose knowledge of religious phenomena has not come through the Sanskrit language or Brahmanical modes of perception.

I write both as an academic and as a woman who was raised in a particular Hindu tradition, or sampradaya, called the Sri Vaishnava, theologically, and Ayyangar, socially. Having lived in a relatively orthoprax household in India, I found it difficult to reconcile my understanding of the Hindu tradition with the depictions of it in Western textbooks. Many studies of religious traditions in the West begin with questions of history, prophets, leaders, and beliefs. As a Sri Vaishnava Hindu woman, I grew up associating my tradition with culinary customs, distinctive names for foods, performing arts, rituals, and localized pilgrimage centers. In this chapter, we will look at rituals and situations that most Hindus will be familiar with in some manner and put them in perspective to enhance our understanding. The four sites I have chosen are homes, weddings, temples, and funerals.

Most Hindus are fond of the saying "Hinduism is more than a religion, it is a way of life," whereas most introductory texts and Western understandings of the tradition have focused on the "otherworldly" issues such as karma, reincarnation, and the idea of a Supreme Being. Hindus will tell you that the closest word in Sanskrit for religion is dharma. Dharma is more ambiguous and far reaching in scope than religion itself. Coming from the root dhr, meaning to support or to sustain, it is most popularly translated as righteousness or duty. And yet, in other contexts, it may mean the way to salvation or liberation (moksha), ethics, and much more. The M. Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary gives, seventeen meanings: religion, the customary observances of a caste or sect, law usage and practice, religious or moral merit, virtue, righteousness, duty, justice, piety, morality, sacrifice, and so forth. From a Western understanding, however, the many books on dharma containing these topics are often not considered part of religion. These topics include human behavior (acara), justice (vyavahara), and repentance/atonement rites (prayascitta). Other classifications are more elaborate. Pandurang Kane, the twentieth century's pre-eminent writer of the history of dharma, starts his second volume on the subject with the "Topics of Dharma Shastra" (Dharma Shastra: texts on dharma) and includes the duties of the classes and castes of society and stages of life; sacraments from conception to death; the duties of the different stages of life; the days when one should not study the Vedas; marriage; the duties of women; the relationship between husband and wife; ritual purity and impurity; rites of death and rituals for ancestors; gifts and donations; crime and punishment; contacts; inheritance; activities done only at times of crises; mixed castes; and so on. Although this list is extensive, it does not exhaust the other areas that the term dharma covers (Kane, volume II, chapter 1, pp. 1—2).

Texts on dharma have always been only selectively followed, and local customs have tempered the rule of the books. In some parts of India, dharma texts such as the Manu Smriti were not well known, and certainly large parts of them were ignored (Kishwar). Although Hindu traditions are portrayed, and quite correctly in some instances, as being patriarchal, the system has built-in mechanisms to allow for dynamic reinterpretation. This wiggle room can serve to legitimatize progressive action. The Vedas, the tradition of the epics and puranas, actions of the righteous, and finally doing what is dear to one's soul—that is, to act after much thought and according to the dictates of one's, conscience—all these are the sources of dharma (Kane volume I, part I, p. 7, 1968). The last of these allows women, or anyone who may feel marginalized, to appropriate or redefine rituals. Particular theologies of traditions or schools (sampradaya), which depend on historical theologians for the interpretation of sacred texts, may emphasize carefully argued worldviews.The succession of teachers in each school will espouse and teach the philosophy of that tradition. Thus, the teachers in the Sri Vaishnava community say that the universe is the "body" of God, teachers of Advaita assert that there is only one reality, and followers of Madhva declare that God and the soul are distinct. The theology may be nonnegotiable, but there will be more latitude in modes of prayer and worship, which can be redefined by women.

The Home for the Hindu Tradition

Many Hindu sacraments, rituals, and festivals are conducted at home, and from some perspectives a Hindu can be very religious without ever leaving the house. Spatially, there may be a special room, or at least an altar, set apart for worship (puja). Several days in a year may be spent in the celebration of major ritual festivals. Religious rituals associated with birth, puberty, pregnancy, and death take place at home. It is here that a child will first hear stories from the Hindu epics or encounter them through television broadcasts. It is here that the most enduring associations between religion and food will be made, the first prayers learned. It is in the home that Hindu tradition has been transmitted primarily for women.

A Hindu child's earliest exposure to her or his religious tradition comes: from seeing daily rituals at the puja altar, with its many pictures and images of local gods and goddesses, as well as those brought as souvenirs on distant pilgrimages. Every day, or even twice a day, the mother may light an oil lamp in front of this altar. The women may draw symmetrical geometric designs with rice flour in front of the altar or in front of the house. These patterns are also drawn outside shrines in South Indian temples. Family members may recite prayers regularly; there may be copies of holy texts or prayer books that people may read or recite. Red powder, known as the kumkum, may be taken from the altar and placed on one's forehead. Flowers and fruits may be offered to the deities on the altar and then used by the devotee.

There are other simple acts that straddle the grey area between religion and culture. One of the first acts a child is taught when he or she is barely a year old is to join the palms together in an act of adoration. This act, which is common in the West only during acts of prayer, is called a namaskara or namaste (literally, "I bow before you") in India and used when greeting people or when praying. There are many other such practices that form part of this vast religious culture. Putting a mark on your forehead as part of your daily routine indicates auspiciousness or which Hindu community you belong to. You must eat, give, and receive with your right hand; it is disrespectful to give with your left hand—the right hand is used for all socially acceptable actions but the left for cleaning the body. You should bow down in front of elders and seek their blessings on important occasions. Elders should bless younger people with standard phrases or wish them all happiness. The list of rituals is long, and many of them are internalized by the time a child enters school, but it is through these simple acts that one participates in the larger Hindu culture.

Deities and Festivals

Hindus narrate stories about Vishnu, Shiva, or the goddesses, sing about them, and dance their stories in many cultural performances. The performing arts are one of the main vehicles for expressing Hindu religious culture. In the diaspora, learning classical dance like Bharata Natyam becomes one of the main ways in which the child learns about Hindu culture.

Birthdays for the gods Krishna and Rama and stories associated with their lives are most popular all over India. Hindus consider Rama and Krishna to be incarnations of the Lord Vishnu, one of the most important deities in India. Vishnu (the one who pervades) is mentioned in the earliest literature, the Vedas (ca. 1750 B.C.E.), but became popular at a later time. Many of the gods spoken about in the early Vedic hymns have now been forgotten. By the beginning oí the Common Era, Vishnu was considered to have incarnated to earth several times. In the popular versions of these narratives, he is said to have come down nine times and is predicted to come again one more time at the end of this cycle of time. Vishnu's first incarnation in this series is said to be as a fish. In a story reminiscent of many flood narratives, Vishnu wanted to save Manu, a pious man, his family, and seven rishis (holy men) from a catastrophic flood. Manu gets all of them and the seeds of all animals into a boat, harnesses it to the divine fish, the form that Vishnu has taken, and rides out the flood (O'Flaherty, pp. 181-84).

Some of the most popular stories a child will hear, the songs she will learn, or the dances she will see will be connected with Rama and Krishna. The story of Rama is told in the Ramayana (The Way of Rama), a Sanskrit epic from the fifth century B.C.E. and an integral part of Hindu culture. Rama is married to Sita, a beautiful princess, popularly considered the incarnation of the Goddess Lakshmi. Because Lakshmi and Vishnu are inseparable, she incarnates every time Vishnu comes down to earth. Rama is exiled because of a family intrigue; Sita and Lakshmana, Rama's brother, accompany him to the forest. Here, Ravana, a king of Lanka, lusting after Sita, kidnaps her. After an epic battle, in which Rama is helped by Hanu-man (a wise, divine monkey who is also a popular Hindu deity), Ravana is killed and Sita returns to Rama. Rama and Sita then return home to Ayodhya and are coronated. Rama's rule of the kingdom is held to be paradigmatic, as are his filial piety, the loyalty of Sita, and the devotion and service oí Hanuman.

Krishna is considered the eighth or ninth incarnation of Vishnu, depending on which text you read, and is beloved in India and in many parts of the world, where members of the International Society of Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, more popularly known as the Hare Krishnas) and other Hindus live. Children are told about Krishna s divine birth, his magical childhood, his mother's and foster mother's love for him, his mischievous pranks, his dancing the autumnal moonlit nights away with the young cowherd girls he grew up with, and his philosophical counsel to his cousin and peer, Arjuna, on the battlefield. The enchanting evenings of dance are emulated in autumn in some communities in India. The battle to destroy the forces of evil is celebrated annually. One such festival is Deepavali (Diwali), the festival of lights, celebrated with great enthusiasm by Hindus all over the world.

Deepavali and Navaratri are two of the best-known home celebrations. Deepavali (literally necklace of lamps) is celebrated on the eve of the new moon that falls between mid-October and mid-November. Although most Hindus observe it, the reasons for celebration differ among the various regions. Hindus from some parts of northern India believe that Lord Rama returned to Ayodhya after his victorious battle with the evil Ravana that day and that the kingdom lit lamps all over to mark the celebrations. In other parts of India, it is believed that Lord Krishna fought a long battle with Narakasura (demon of hell) and won the battle on the dawn of this new-moon day. To commemorate this victory of good over evil, Hindus in every home let off fireworks, mimicking the noise of Krishna's war against evil, and light lamps to celebrate the victory of light over the forces of darkness. Special sweets and candies are made at home; new clothes are bought and worn. In some parts of South India, Hindus believe that the sacred river Ganga is spiritually present in all water. Early on the morning of Deepavali, even before dawn, people take a special ritual bath using oil and fragrant herbs, and some communities greet each other with the rhetorical question: "Have you bathed in the waters of the Ganga?" Bathing in this river is said to purify a human being, and one begins this day with this physical and mental purity. Hindus from Gujarat celebrate their new year at this time (most others celebrate it in March or April). Hindus from Punjab spend the nights in ritual gambling and invite Lakshmi, the goddess of good fortune, to their houses. In most parts of India, gifts of dried fruits and sweets are given to friends and cash bonuses are given to employees. In some states like Bengal and Kerala, the festival is the most important of the year.

In general, in most parts of India, goddesses are worshipped during Navaratri. The celebrations in Calcutta are communal and in honor of the Goddess Durga. Many Hindus who are devotees of her think that she is the manifestation of the Supreme Being. Like other rituals that are celebrated to mark particular stories, here too there is one that speaks about the victory of good over evil. The buffalo-demon Mahisha was terrorizing human beings, and none of the gods could subdue him. The energies of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—the three male gods important in many of the Sanskrit texts—combined, and out of this power emerged Durga (unapproachable), the mighty Goddess. Beautiful and strong, she came striding on a lion. The demon tried to woo and marry her; she rejected him with contempt and after a battle lasting nine nights and ten days, she emerged victorious. This victory is celebrated on the last day of the festival, the Vijaya Dashami (the victorious tenth day). In Calcutta, it has become a practice for each part of the city to make a giant effigy of the goddess, usually set against a modern contextual background. For the days of the Durga Puja (worship of Durga), this effigy is thought to possess divine energy, and at the end of it, all the effigies are taken to the river Ganga and ritually immersed. There, her energies return to the universe.

In parts of South India, Sarasvati, Lakshmi, and Durga are all worshipped during the nine days. In the South Indian states of Tamilnadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, the festival is very much a home celebration, and very much a women's celebration. Here, in some castes and some communities, women put up temporary altars in the largest room in the house. Several steps, usually seven or nine, of altars are set up in each house, covered with cloth to resemble gallery seats and adorned with beautiful dolls. Traditional clay dolls of deities intermingle with secular dolls. Once set up, the whole area becomes sacred. This display of dolls, the kolu (royal court), is said to be the divine court of the deities. Toy trains, mi ni-waterfalls, parks, tiny gardens are all created as works of art, all in the main room of the house. For the next nine days, this functions essentially as the family altar. Food offerings are made to the deities, and prayers said. Once the display is set up, the line between secular and sacred dolls is obliterated, and the whole area is sacred. Viewed from the locus of devotion, any space, any object can be seen as diffused with or as a container for the divine. And yet others consider the...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Preface
• Introduction
• 1 Hinduism
• 2 Buddhism
• 3 Confucianism
• 4 Taoism
• 5 Judaism
• 6 Christianity
• 7 Islam
• 8 Goddess Spirituality and Wicca
• Notes
• Bibliography
• About the Contributors
• Index