Theoretical Approaches in Psychology

Matt Jarvis

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2005
• eBook ISBN: 9781134655168
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: History & Theory in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Psychologists use a range of principles and theories, all of which view the person and the study of the person in very different ways. Theoretical Approaches in Psychology introduces and outlines the six main approaches and considers how each has helped psychologists understand human behaviour, thought and feeling.

The Routledge Modular Psychology series is a completely new approach to introductory level psychology, tailor-made for the new modular style of teaching. Each book covers a topic in more detail than any large textbook can, allowing teacher and student to select material exactly to suit any particular course or project.

Especially written for those students new to higher-level study, whether at school, college or university, the books include the following designed features to help with technique:

• Practice essays with specialist commentary to show how to achieve a higher grade
• Chapter summaries and summaries of key research
• Glossary and further reading
• Progress and review exercises.

1
Introduction

Introduction: one psychology or many?

Case examples and explanations

The major features of each psychological approach

Scientific and less scientific approaches

Summary

Introduction: one psychology or many?

A popular definition of psychology would be ‘the science of mind and behaviour’ (Gross, 1996). Although more often than not psychology is considered to be a science, it is unique amongst the sciences in that it is not governed by a single set of principles and beliefs. Instead, psychologists can draw upon a range of alternative approaches, each of which views the person and the study of the person in very different ways. We shall return to the issue of whether psychology is, or should be, a science later in this chapter. The aim of this book is to outline each of the major theoretical approaches or paradigms in psychology, and to consider how psychology has helped us understand human behaviour, thoughts and feelings.

As you consider each approach to psychology, it is almost inevitable that you will be drawn to some approaches, whilst others will appeal to you less, and may even seem pointless or illogical. A central principle of this book is that each of the major approaches to psychology has survived because it has something unique to offer us. Rather than speaking of strengths and weaknesses of each paradigm, it is perhaps more productive to look at what it has contributed to our understanding of human mind and behaviour, and what this approach is unlikely to achieve on its own. We will thus speak of the contributions and limitations of each approach.

Just as you will probably like some approaches to psychology better than others, so do professional psychologists. Some practising psychologists work strictly within a particular paradigm—we thus have behavioural psychologists, psychodynamic psychologists and humanistic psychologists. However, many psychologists prefer to draw from several approaches, and are said to be eclectic in their approach. Academic research in psychology is currently dominated by a cognitive approach (see Chapters 4 and 5). When reading the following case examples you need to remember that most research-oriented cognitive psychologists are not actually concerned with this type of real-life event.

We can apply six broad theoretical approaches to psychology: the behavioural approach, the psychodynamic approach, the humanistic approach, the cognitive approach (including the cognitive-developmental approach), the social approach and the biological approach. Each of these major approaches can be subdivided into more specialist approaches. For example the ‘biological approach’ actually includes areas of study as diverse as the physiology of the brain, the influences of evolution on human behaviour and the influence of genes on people’s individual characteristics. A good way to gain an understanding of the aims and assumptions of each psychological paradigm is to consider some vignettes and look at how each approach might explain what is happening.

Case examples and explanations

The three following case examples are based on common real-life scenarios, each of which psychologists might be called upon to explain. We can look at what psychologists might make of these situations, based on each of the main theoretical approaches, and see what we might pick from these explanations about the general aims and assumptions of each approach.

Case example 1: Marjorie

Marjorie is a 32-year-old woman, now happily married after an unhappy childhood in which her mother committed suicide when Marjorie was eight. After this Marjorie was brought up by a rather cold and austere aunt. She does not work and has one 8- year-old daughter. Marjorie‘s husband is a successful banker and the family are well-off, but he works long hours and sees less of his family than they would like. Recently, Marjorie has been feeling depressed. In order to try to cheer herself up, she has been secretly drinking and indulging in shopping sprees.

Explanations

Psychologists might explain Marjorie’s feelings and behaviour in quite different ways according to what theoretical approach they chose to adopt. A psychologist adopting a behavioural approach might, for example, suggest that Marjorie failed to get into the habit of rewarding herself and enjoying life when living with her austere aunt, and that this pattern of behaviour has persisted into adulthood. Marjorie’s current behaviour of drinking and having shopping sprees could be seen from a behavioural perspective as failed attempts to provide herself with rewards in order to try to enjoy life more.

A psychologist adopting a psychodynamic viewpoint would probably look at Marjorie’s case rather differently. They might be particularly interested in the death of Marjorie’s mother, and the fact that her aunt provided little comfort or support during her childhood. From a psychodynamic perspective, Marjorie’s depression might be related directly to not being helped to grieve and to the poor quality substitute parenting provided by her aunt.

A psychologist approaching the case from a humanistic perspective would probably be interested in all aspects of Marjorie’s life, past and present. Because of her unhappy childhood and her isolation as a housewife in adulthood, Marjorie has never had the opportunities to develop a healthy self-image and so failed to grow into the person she could be. She is thus currently unfulfilled. From a humanistic perspective Marjorie’s depression might be seen as a result of this lack of personal fulfilment.

From a biological perspective, given Marjorie’s current feelings and behaviour, the current physiology of her brain is probably disrupted. For example, levels of certain neurotransmitters, the brain’s chemical messengers, are probably lower than in most people. Seen from a biological point of view, this abnormal brain chemistry may be the root cause of Marjorie’s condition, or at least a factor in producing her symptoms. The biological psychologist might be particularly interested in the fact that Marjorie’s mother committed suicide. This could indicate that depression has been passed on genetically from her mother.

A psychologist looking at Marjorie’s case from a cognitive standpoint would be particularly interested in what Marjorie was thinking, as well as what she was feeling and how she was behaving. It might be for example that Marjorie holds unrealistic and negative beliefs about herself, her situation or her future. If Marjorie sees herself as a failure or a worthless person, or if she sees her life as empty and her future as hopeless, these unhealthy patterns of thinking might be sufficient to result in depression.

Social perspectives look at the position of the individual in relation to both other individuals and society as a whole. From a social perspective, Marjorie might be seen as disempowered by a male-dominated society in which she is forced to remain at home, unfulfilled, whilst her husband pursues a satisfying career. Because of the passive way in which society expects women to show their feelings, Marjorie’s dissatisfaction would be expected to manifest itself as depression rather than anger or rebellion.

Case example 2: Mark

Mark has recently begun jogging in his forties and discovered that he has a talent for it. He is about to enter the London Marathon and, despite having never been interested in sport until recently, is tipped to do very well. As the day approaches, Mark trains harder and harder, spending most of his free time running.
The only thing stopping Mark being completely happy is that he is mourning for his best friend who recently died suddenly from a heart attack.

Explanations

From a behavioural perspective, the more Mark trains the better he gets at running. He can see this in the faster times he is achieving and in the fact that he is becoming less tired after each run. Mark is also receiving many admiring comments from his workmates. He has lost weight and believes he is becoming much more attractive to women. All these factors are rewarding or reinforcing Mark’s running and encouraging him to continue.

A psychologist adopting a psychodynamic approach might instead focus attention on the fact that Mark’s friend has recently died, and wonder whether Mark’s new healthy behaviour is a response (of which he is not thinking because it would be painful to do so) to his fear that he too might die young. A psychodynamic approach would also consider the possible significance of the nature of the health-enhancing strategy Mark has chosen. Mark’s running could be interpreted as his symbolically running away from his own mortality.

From a humanistic perspective, Mark has discovered in his talent for running a way in which he can fulfil his potential as a person. The fact that he is beginning to do this is gaining him positive regard from others, which boosts his self-esteem. With this new-found self-esteem Mark is further inspired to continue trying to achieve all he can as a runner.

From a biological perspective, Mark’s behaviour could be interpreted in physiological terms. Whenever Mark runs his brain produces chemicals called endorphins, which are chemically quite similar to drugs like heroin. This gives him a ‘runner’s high’. One reason Mark is running more and more is to enjoy his fix of endorphins!

A psychologist adopting a cognitive approach might differ from the others in crediting Mark with making a logical decision to improve his fitness following the realisation that he is now at an age when not keeping fit is seriously endangering his health. A social approach might emphasise Mark’s new social identity as an athlete and the fact that we all see some types of social identity —such as that of an athlete—in a positive light and other identities less positively.

Case example 3: Neil and Sandy

Neil has just returned from the pub, where he has been drinking heavily all evening. His wife, Sandy, challenges him about why he did not call to say that he would not be home for dinner. Neil loses control and slaps Sandy. This is not the first time Neil has hit Sandy. Both Neil and Sandy came from violent families and both suffered and witnessed violence as children. Sandy’s previous husband would also hit her.

Explanations

A behavioural psychologist would probably see Neil’s behaviour primarily as the result of imitation of the adult behaviour he witnessed as a child. A behaviourist might also suspect that Neil may have experimented with violent behaviour as a child and received rewards in the form of getting his own way.

From a psychodynamic perspective, it is highly significant that both Neil and Sandy, who had both come from violent families, ended up in a violent relationship themselves. However, rather than explaining this in terms of learnt behaviour, the psychodynamic psychologist would be more likely to look at the dynamic between the couple, in which both were attracted to the other, perhaps because each reminded the other of members of their own family.

From a humanistic viewpoint, both Sandy and Neil have both probably received inadequate love, which has left them with poor psychological health. This means that Sandy probably has poor self-esteem, and she might well believe that she does not deserve better treatment than that she gets from Neil. From a humanistic perspective, an important factor in Neil’s violent behaviour may be that he has not developed the same capacity most of us have for empathy—i.e. being able to perceive and appreciate the feelings of others.

Various biological perspectives could be used to explain Neil’s behaviour. From a physiological perspective, Neil’s behaviour is accompanied by high levels of certain hormones such as adrenaline, and by considerable activity in certain areas of the brain. A biologist might believe that levels of aggression are partially under genetic control and suggest that this might be why aggression appears to run in Neil’s family.

From a cognitive perspective, what is particularly significant is what Neil and Sandy might be thinking during their exchange. In particular, a psychologist influenced by cognitive psychology would probably wish to know what Neil was thinking when he lost control and hit Sandy. It may be for example that Neil was having irrational and extreme thoughts such as ‘I can’t stand this any more’ or ‘she’s just trying to wind me up’. In cognit...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Illustrations
• Acknowledgements
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Behavioural Psychology
• 3. Psychodynamic Psychology
• 4. Humanistic Psychology
• 5. Cognitive Psychology
• 6. Cognitive-Developmental Psychology
• 7. Social Psychology
• 8. Biological Psychology 1: Genetic Influences On Behaviour
• 9. Biological Psychology 2: Neurophysiology
• 10. Study Aids
• Glossary
• References