Routledge Handbook of Adapted Physical Education

Justin Haegele, Samuel Hodge, Deborah Shapiro, Justin A. Haegele, Samuel R. Hodge, Deborah R. Shapiro, Justin Haegele, Samuel Hodge, Deborah Shapiro, Justin A. Haegele, Samuel R. Hodge, Deborah R. Shapiro

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2020
• eBook ISBN: 9780429627590
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Physical Education

This handbook represents the first comprehensive and evidence-based review of theory, research, and practice in the field of adapted physical education (APE). Exploring philosophical and foundational aspects of APE, the book outlines the main conceptual frameworks informing research and teaching in this area, and presents important material that will help shape best practice and future research.

Written by world-leading researchers, the book introduces the key themes in APE, such as historical perspectives on disability, disability and the law, language, and measurement. It examines the most significant theoretical frameworks for understanding APE, from embodiment and social cognitive theory to occupational socialization, and surveys current debates and practical issues in APE, such as teacher training, the use of technology, and physical inactivity and health. Acknowledging the importance of the voices of children, parents and peers, the book also explores research methods and paradigms in APE, with each chapter including directions for further research.

Offering an unprecedented wealth of material, the Routledge Handbook of Adapted Physical Education is an essential reference for advanced students, researchers and scholars working in APE, and useful reading for anybody with an interest in disability, physical education, sports coaching, movement science or youth sport.

Part I

Foundational issues in adapted physical education

1

Historical viewpoint on adapted physical education

Karen P. DePauw

Introduction

The evolution of adapted physical education (APE) should be viewed in the historical context of physical activity. Physical activity and movement are integral aspects of life and have long been understood as having curative value dating back to China in 2700 BC. Drew (1922) wrote that

some sort of exercise for remedial purposes has long been in use from earliest times. Primitive man (sic) seems to have recognized that certain bodily ailments were benefited by physical activity. Records and pictures have been found representing the use of medical gymnastics by the Chinese, at least three thousand years BC.

(as cited by Stafford, 1947, p. 17)

This use of physical activity provided the foundation for what now can be called adapted physical activity as the umbrella term in the international context (Sherrill & DePauw, 1997) and the emergence of APE in the education arena in the US. Over the years, the uses of physical activity and terminology have evolved, as shown in Table 1.1, which reveals that the roles of physical activity for individuals with disabilities have ranged from curative to rehabilitative to APE and sport. In addition to the growth in APE, the past 25 years have seen an emphasis on inclusive physical education and the evolution of competitive sport opportunities for athletes with disabilities that have become increasingly available and visible. Although competitive sport, including disability sport and Paralympic sport, has evolved throughout history on a related and parallel track to APE, in this chapter, I focus primarily on physical education for individuals with disabilities commonly known as APE.

Table 1.1 Historical periods in adapted physical activity and applications for individuals with disabilities (modified from DePauw & Gavron, 2005)

Historical period	Physical activity applications
Antiquity	Strength and endurance needed for survival
2700 BC China	Prevention and alleviation of physical disorders
5th century (Greek)	Beautiful and harmonious body—balance of mental, social, and physical training
Early 19th (Europe)	Sound mind and body through medical gymnastics
1850s (U.S)	Medical gymnastics used by US physicians (curative, corrective)
Early 1900s	Physical education to improve physical condition of youth corrective physical education, adapted sports (physical education)
Post world wars	Rehabilitation through physical activity
1960s	Perceptual and sensory–motor training developmental and remedial physical education
1970s	US legislation (special education, physical education, sport) Adapted physical education programs in public schools Adapted physical activity (Europe)
1980s	Adapted physical education (APE) and disability sport expansion
1990s	Competitive sport for athletes with disabilities (e.g., Paralympic sport) accepted and opportunities increased nationally and internationally Inclusive physical education emerges in US
2000s	Inclusion in sport and physical education (Europe, Australia)
2010s+	National and international APE programs strengthened, APE standards and certification

A few words about terminology: adapted physical activity/education

The term adapted physical activity was first used in conjunction with the formation of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity in 1973 in Quebec, Canada. At that time, adapted physical activity was selected in that it would incorporate movement, physical activity, and sport in which special emphasis was placed on the interests and capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Worldwide, adapted physical activity has become the term of choice for an academic discipline and a professional society over the past 25 years (Sherrill & DePauw, 1997).

In the US context, adapted physical education (commonly abbreviated as APE) is the terminology used to refer to the physical education for individuals with disabilities that occurs primarily in elementary and secondary schools. The terminology originated in the US, as defined by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (AAHPER, now Society of Health and Physical Educators [SHAPE] of America) in 1952 and became more prominent after the passage of federal laws in the 1970s requiring the education of children with disabilities (e.g., Public Law 94–142, Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975). Many definitions have been used and the description of APE has continued to evolve since the original definition and many variations in the programs of APE exist due to the varying needs and abilities of individuals with disabilities (e.g., age, impairment, setting). Perhaps the most informative definition is one offered by Dunn and Leitschuh (2010) as follows: “Adapted physical education programs are those that have the same objectives as the regular physical education program but in which adjustments are made in the regular offerings to meet the needs and abilities of exceptional students” (p. 5). This education can be provided in separate educational settings as well as in general (regular) education settings. Outside of the education system, disability sport (e.g., adapted sport, Paralympic sport) has been used when referring specifically to sport-related activities and therapeutic recreation when referring to recreation and leisure activity that might not be typically found under sport.

History of APE

Beginning in the 19th century

The history of physical education and the foundation for APE can be traced back to the early 19th century in Europe. Through the gymnastics movement developed in Germany and Sweden, gymnastics became a well-known form of physical activity and exercise with therapeutic benefits. In 1811, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn opened the first Turnplatz (open-air gymnasium) in Berlin, which would usher in the gymnastics movement in Germany known as Turnverein (gymnastic association) (Table 1.2). As viewed in the context of the time, the Turnverein (also known as Turners) was not only an athletic initiative, but was also viewed as part of the national identity of Germany.

Table 1.2 Historical milestones (modified from Sherrill & DePauw, 1997)

Year	Milestone
1811	Friedrich Ludwig Jahn opened the first Turnplatz (open-air gymnasium) in Berlin that led to the development of the Turnverein (gymnastics) movement (also known as the Turners)
1838	Gymnastics introduced at Perkins School for the Blind
1840	Theory and practice of medical gymnastics published by Per Henrik Ling which resulted in the medical gymnastics movement
1848	First Turners group formed in Cincinnati that built several gymnasia to serve the German–American populations in the Midwest
1889	Boston Normal School of Gymnastics (Wellesley College Department of Health and Physical Education) founded to train teachers in medical gymnastics
1908	Dudley Allen Sargent, MD, argues that all physical education teachers should have training in remedial and corrective gymnastics
1909	R. Tait McKenzie, MD, wrote about physical education for individuals with sensory impairments (hearing, vision) and mental retardation in his book entitled Exercise and Education and Medicine
1918	Increased awareness of disability following the First World War and the need for rehabilitation (physical therapy) of those injured; influenced the development of corrective physical education programs in public schools
1922	Special education in US public schools established
1934	Publication of Josephine Rathbone’s book entitled Corrective Physical Education, which laid the foundations for physical education programs through the 1960s
1939	Sports for the Handicapped by George T. Stafford published, in which he emphasized sport/physical activity over corrective exercise
1952	APE defined by AAHPER and indicated the switch from “correctives” to physical education including teaching of diversified activities
1954	First textbook, entitled Adapted Physical Education, by Arthur Daniels, was published
1958	The Adapted Physical Education section of AAHPER was created
1960	First international games for the disabled was held in Rome (would ultimately become Paralympics)
1966	First specialization within Master’s degree in Physical Education for individuals with disabilities, UCLA
1967	First federal legislation (PL 90–170) authorizing funding for personnel training and research in physical education and recreation for individuals with disabilities
1968	AAHPER formalized the Unit on Programs for the Handicapped headed by Julian Stein First Master’s degree specialization in APE offered by SUNY Brockport
1969	First special feature on APE in JOHPER
1970s	Expansion of APE (remedial, developmental) in Los Angeles (California) City Schools and the development of APE programs in LA County Schools First state conference on physical education for individuals with disabilities held in California; now known as the National Conference on Adapted Physical Education and associated with the California Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (CAHPERD)
1973	Founding and first conference of International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA) held in Quebec City, Canada; conferences held every two years internationally
1975	Formation of the National Consortium on Physical Education and Recreation for the Handicapped (NCPERH); now known as the National Consortium for Physical Education for Individuals with Disabilities (NCPEID) PL 94–142 Education for All Handicapped Children Act enacted that required physical education as part of special education Italy and Norway enacted regulations regarding education of all children, including individuals with disabilities
1978	PL 95–606 the Amateur Sports Act recognized disability sport organizations and their engagement with the United States Olympic Committee; USOC Committee on Sports for the Disabled (COSD) started in 1979
1981	AAHPERD Task Force on Competencies in adapted physical education appointed
1984	Two scholarly journals began publication: Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ) and Palaestra
1985	Merger of Therapeutics Council and the Adapted Physical Education Academy into the Adapted Physical Activity Council (APAC) (AAHPERD, now SHAPE)
1989	7th International Symposium of IFAPA held in Berlin; adapted physical activity officially defined, which includes APE; accepted and used internationally The first Ellie D. Friedman Award was given to Claudine Sherrill at ISAPA in Berlin
1991	European Master’s degree in Adapted Physical Activity established in Leuven, Belgium (continues today) Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) passed requiring access to physical education in regular school environment and mandating an Individualized Education Program (IEP), including APE
1992	NCPEID took responsibility for establishing standards for APE and receiving funding from US Department of Education
1993	First Young Professional Awards from IFAPA to Harald von Selzam (Germany) and Kazumi Tsukagoshi (Japan) at the ISAPA in Japan
1994	Special Feature of JOPERD entitled “Inclusion: Physical education for all”
1995	Eight general textbooks in adapted physical education available worldwide laying the foundation for increasing number of textbooks on APE and inclusion in physical education
1996	NCPERID published position statement on including students with disabilities in physical education
1997	First administration of the Adapted Physical Education Standards (APENS), which provides certification for APE teachers (CAPE)
1999	World Summit on Physical Education, held in Berlin, Germany, issued Berlin Agenda that called for inclusive physical education First G. Lawrence Rarick Memorial Lecture delivered at ISAPA in Barcelona by Roy Shephard (Canada) entitled “Post modernism and APE: A new gnostic heresy”?
2000	European Commission issued Nice Declaration on physical education and sport for all European residents, including individuals with disabilities
2001	World Health Organization endorsed the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), which focused emphasis on functionality rather than impairment and disability
2005	Julian Stein received the first Julian Stein lifetime achievement award presented by AAHPERD
2006	First APE graduate program of the year presented by AAHPERD presented to American Association of Adapted Sports Programs
2007	First APE doctoral student of the year to Takahiro Sato (The Ohio State University) presented by AAHPERD First APE University graduate program of the year award presented to the University of Wisconsin Osh Kosh Adapted Physical Education Program with Partners (UWOAPEPP) from AAHPERD
2008	European Commission funded a project entitled European Standards in Adapted Physical Activities (EUSAPA) which included the identification of competencies in APE for Europe European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity (EUJAPA) founded; Martin Kudláček served as editor
2010	Inclusion Club started in UK and Australia
2013	AAHPERD renamed Society for Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America) and reorganized into SIG groups including Adapted Physical Education/Activity. Programs and current awards include the following: Julian Stein lifetime achievement award, Claudine Sherrill Breakfast, APE/A workshops, APE Teacher of the Year, APE/A program of the year and APE graduate student of the year

During this same period, Per Henrik Ling (Sweden), who engaged in daily therapeutic exercises (e.g., calisthenics, fencing), would develop the movement known as “medical gymnastics”. In 1813, he founded the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute to advance physical conditioning of adults and youth through gymnastics. In 1840, he published the theory and practice of medical gymnastics, thereby officially launching the medical gymnastics movement. Gymnastic organizations expanded throughout Europe and ultimately to the US. In Europe, these movements, which began as private gymnastics schools (gyms), would evolve into physical education programs in the public schools. In the early 20th century, public schools around the world developed a more formalized physical education curriculum.

Medical gymnastics and the Turnverein mo...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of contributors
• Introduction
• PART I: Foundational issues in adapted physical education
• PART II: Research approaches
• PART III: Conceptual and theoretical frameworks
• PART IV: Research trends in adapted physical education
• Index