Translational Research in Traumatic Brain Injury

Daniel Laskowitz, Gerald Grant

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781466584914
• eBook ISBN: 9781498766579
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Medicine
• Subtopic: Neurology

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a significant source of death and permanent disability, contributing to nearly one-third of all injury related deaths in the United States and exacting a profound personal and economic toll. Despite the increased resources that have recently been brought to bear to improve our understanding of TBI, the developme

Chapter 1

Epidemiology

Peter Leo and Michael McCrea

Introduction

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an important public health concern that is one of the leading causes of death and disability annually around the world.1,2 Several factors have fueled increasing interest in TBI over the last several years, including rising awareness around the acute and chronic effects of sport-related concussion (SRC) and the reported incidence of head injuries sustained by U.S. military service members deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan. Sporting and military cohorts are now known to be at elevated risk of mild TBI (mTBI), characterized by more subtle neurocognitive and neurobehavioral symptoms that are often challenging to assess and characterized in a clinical setting.

A strong epidemiological framework for TBI is vital to improving our understanding of the injury’s occurrence, populations at risk, and effective strategies for injury prevention. The purpose of the current chapter is to review the most recent epidemiological literature on TBI in both civilian and military populations.

The epidemiological literature on TBI is limited by a number of factors, not the least of which is that the definition of a TBI varies across studies. Though there are a number of operational definitions, TBI is commonly and most basically defined as an alteration in brain functioning or the emergence of evidence of brain pathology caused by an external force.3 One of the methodological limitations of many epidemiological studies over the last 20 to 30 years has been suboptimal or inconsistent classification and inclusion criteria. Many studies have included individuals who sustained an injury to the head that may not have involved any alteration in brain function or physiological damage to the brain. For example, Bazarian and colleagues used emergency department records for a study of mTBI that included individuals with diagnostic codes such as “skull fracture,” “intracranial injury of unspecified nature,” and “head injury, unspecified.”4 Even though many individuals with these diagnoses likely met the criteria for mTBI, there are others who did not sustain a TBI at all or may have sustained an injury that was more severe than an mTBI.

Population-based epidemiological studies are typically based on hospital admission or discharge records, emergency department records, or death certificates, which creates a selection bias.5 It has long been held that many patients with less severe injuries do not present for medical treatment and therefore are not included in many of these studies. In addition, changes in hospitalization patterns over the past several years, with fewer less severe patients being hospitalized, has also likely lead to an underestimation of the true incidence of milder forms of TBI (for a review, see the study by McCrea6).

TBI severity classification can also vary among different studies. Commonly, clinical indicators related to acute injury characteristics are used to indicate injury severity such as mild, moderate, or severe. The indicators most commonly used are alteration in consciousness, loss of consciousness (LOC), and post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) following the injury. The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is the most commonly used clinical tool for assessing consciousness following an injury.7 A GCS score of 13 to 15 is considered a mild injury, 9 to 12 is considered a moderate injury, and 8 or less is considered a severe injury. Methods used to classify TBI also have varied utility. The GSC as a highly effective tool to differentiate the severity of TBI has been well founded and the GCS has been shown to be useful in predicting morbidity and mortality in more severe injuries,7–10 but it has been less useful as a prognostic indicator for mTBI.11 Historically, not all epidemiological studies have employed a common or standardized classification system, which complicates interpretation of epidemiological data and comparisons across studies.

In terms of injury reporting, there is no single system in the United States or most other countries that tracks the occurrence of head injury over large populations. As a result, a true appreciation for TBI’s national or worldwide incidence is lacking. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the most comprehensive data source of epidemiological studies of TBI in the United States, as it monitors death records (National Vital Statistics System), hospitalizations (National Hospital Discharge Survey), and emergency department visits (National Hosptial Ambulatory Medical Care).12 The data for military TBI injuries comes from the Department of Defense (DoD) in collaboration with the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center.13 Where available, other sources from well-designed epidemiological studies in the United States and around the world were also reviewed.

The first section of the this chapter will review the civilian literature, including sport-related concussions, and the second section will focus on the military epidemiological literature.

TBI in Civilian Populations

Incidence

According to the most recent figures from the CDC, the average estimated incidence of TBI in the United States between the years 2002 and 2006 was 1,691,481 (576.8 per 100,000). Of these 1,364,797 (465.4 per 100,000) were treated in the emergency department (ED) and released; 275,146 (93.8 per 100,000) were hospitalized and discharged alive; and 51,538 (17.6 per 100,000) died.12 Earlier examination of CDC data between 1995 and 2001 estimated a total of 1,396,000 (506.4 per 100,000) TBIs each year with 1,111,000 (403.1 per 100,000) ED visits, 235,000 (85.2 per 100,000) hospitalizations, and 49,900 (18.1 per 100,000) deaths.14 These data from the CDC do not include individuals that were treated at outpatient facilities or who did not seek treatment.

Previous reports from the United States that used the 1991 National Health Interview survey of 46,761 households estimated there were approximately 1.5 million (618 per 100,000) individuals who sustained nonfatal brain injuries in the United States and of those approximately 25% did not seek any type of treatment.15 Comparison between the Sosin and colleagues report15 and the reports from the CDC data are difficult to make based on methodological differences. However, compa...

Table of contents

• Series Preface
• Preface
• Editors
• Contributors
• Chapter 1 - Epidemiology
• Chapter 2 - Sport-Related Traumatic Brain Injury
• Chapter 3 - Diffuse Axonal Injury
• Chapter 4 - Blood–Brain Barrier Pathophysiology following Traumatic Brain Injury
• Chapter 5 - Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Secondary Neuronal Injury following Traumatic Brain Injury
• Chapter 6 - Neuroinflammation
• Chapter 7 - Neurosteroids and Traumatic Brain Injury: Translating Biomarkers to Therapeutics; Overview and Pilot Investigations in Iraq and Afghanistan Era Veterans
• Chapter 8 - Neuroplasticity after Traumatic Brain Injury
• Chapter 9 - Genetic Influences in Traumatic Brain Injury
• Chapter 10 - Modeling Post-Traumatic Epilepsy for Therapy Development
• Chapter 11 - Translational Principles of Neuroprotective and Neurorestorative Therapy Testing in Animal Models of Traumatic Brain Injury
• Chapter 12 - Biomarkers of Traumatic Brain Injury and Their Relationship to Pathology
• Chapter 13 - Advanced Neuroimaging of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
• Chapter 14 - Epilepsy after Traumatic Brain Injury
• Chapter 15 - Intracranial Pressure Monitoring and Management
• Chapter 16 - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Relationship to Traumatic Brain Injury and Approach to Treatment
• Chapter 17 - Traumatic Brain Injury and Potential for Neuromodulation
• Chapter 18 - Enhanced Functional Outcome from Traumatic Brain Injury with Brain– Machine Interface Neuromodulation: Neuroprosthetic Scaling in Relation to Injury Severity
• Chapter 19 - Neurocognitive and Psychiatric Symptoms following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury