The Routledge Companion to Britain in the Twentieth Century

Mark Clapson

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2009
• eBook ISBN: 9781134476947
• Topic: Histoire
• Subtopic: Histoire du 20ème siècle

The Routledge Companion to Twentieth-Century Britain is a jargon-free guide to the social, economic and political history of Britain since 1900. Opening with a general introduction and overview of twentieth century Britain, the book contains a wealth of chronologies, facts and figures, introductions to major themes, the historiography of twentieth century Britain, a guide to sources and resources, biographies of the most important figures and a dictionary of key terms, providing a comprehensive and up-to-date introduction to this key period of change and development in this most urban of nations.

From the outbreak of World War One, to the introduction of the NHS, to the first television set, this book covers in detail some of the most important events that shaped twentieth-century Britain. Topics discussed include:

• class: the working and middle classes
• gender: women's history
• ethnicity: immigration and the idea of multicultural Britain
• social policy: poverty and welfare
• economic paradox: decline and affluence
• economic change: manufacturing and services
• popular culture: music, fashion, sports, screen
• liberalisation: Victorian Values and permissiveness
• political parties: the major and minor parties
• governments: achievements and problems
• the wider world: Ireland; decolonization; European integration.

Packed with useful information, this guide will be an indispensable reference tool for all those seeking an introduction to twentieth century British history.

I
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY BRITAIN

1.1
INTRODUCTION

The Companion to Britain in the Twentieth Century is designed for anyone with an interest in modern and contemporary British history, whether students and teachers looking for a convenient reference book or the general reader wanting to learn more about Britain. Unlike many other fact-based textbooks on twentieth-century Britain, social and cultural history are given particular attention, in addition to political, economic and overseas developments. Furthermore, Britain was one of the most urbanised countries in the world by 1900, and it continued to be so throughout the twentieth century. Key aspects of British urban history and development are also included.

For those with little or no knowledge about Britain since 1900, the organisation of the Companion will both facilitate a broad understanding of modern and contemporary British history and allow for a more detailed exploration of key events, institutions, people and themes. And it will become clear that most of the major issues and problems faced by Britain in the early twenty-first century were shaped by the history of the previous hundred years.

The Companion is also a guide to the study of twentieth-century Britain. It introduces the historiography of the country since 1900, that is, the major approaches adopted by historians, and some of the key debates among them. It describes the wide range of sources—documents—that historians use, and indicates some of the strengths and problems of those documents. Guides to accessing and interpreting documents are included.

Organisation of the Companion

Four broad but overlapping categories form the substance of the Companion, namely:

• social and cultural history
• economic history
• political history
• Britain and the wider world, or overseas history.

Section 1.2 highlights the key periods in the twentieth century.

Section 1.3 gives an accessible overview of the major events, developments and key themes in twentieth-century British history. The aim of both of these sections is to establish a general understanding that can be built upon in subsequent sections of the Companion.

Part II is entitled Landmarks. It provides chronologies or timelines of the major Acts of Parliament and events in Britain.

Part III is a guide to the Historiography of modern and contemporary Britain, and also an A–Z checklist of some of the best-known historians working within this broad field.

Part IV, entitled Sources and resources, introduces the reader to the wide and growing range of contemporary documents, the very artefacts of history itself. It shows where these sources can be accessed and provides an approach to their interpretation.

Part V is an alphabetically arranged biography of many of the most famous or significant people of twentieth-century Britain. In common with other textbooks it lists the leading politicians, economists and reformers, but it also includes leading personalities from the worlds of popular culture and sport.

Part VI, the Dictionary, is about the major institutions, themes and isms in twentieth-century Britain, many of which are still very much a presence in our own lives. This includes the significant political, economic and civic institutions, but also social and cultural institutions, from television genres to the pub. The most significant thematic elements in the Companion are addressed in more detail here.

Throughout this Companion key events, names and themes are highlighted in bold at their first mention to assist in cross-referencing elsewhere in the book. As a kind of rule of thumb, think of the organisation of the book as follows:

• Major pieces of legislation and events are highlighted in Landmarks.
• Important people are discussed in the Biographies.
• Significant themes and institutions are elaborated upon in the Dictionary.
• Historiography is about what historians do.
• Sources and resources is about the archives, libraries, websites and documents that historians use.
• Page references to all entries in the Companion are listed in the Index to help with cross-referencing.

1.2
TIME FRAMES

Notes

• Time frames or significant periods in twentieth-century British history are outlined in this section. It is essential to have a basic understanding of the key time frames that historians use and why they use them. It is also essential to understand that no period of history remains in isolation from earlier or later time frames.
• Neither ‘time frame’ or ‘periodisation’ are particularly elegant words, but they are critically important when we seek to understand the history of twentieth-century Britain. While many historians seek to provide an interpretative overview of the entire century, others divide the century into smaller time frames or periods, in order to emphasise what was especially profound within those years. Wars and crises effectively mark both beginnings and ends of the major periods in twentieth-century British history.

The twentieth century in its entirety, 1900–99

A number of major works have covered the history of twentieth-century Britain from its beginnings to its conclusion. These are mostly survey histories, concerned with the most significant social, cultural, economic and political developments and with changes and continuities over the course of the century. Along with an emphasis upon key themes, the best books are attentive to detail, dates and chronology.

The Edwardian era, 1900–14

This period takes it name from the reign of King Edward VII, from 1901 to 1910. Although Queen Victoria died in January 1901, and King Edward in 1910, it would be over-precise to date the Edwardian years exactly from the date of her death to the demise of Edward. Thus there is room for overlap with both the last years of the Victorian period and the beginning of the reign of King George V. The Edwardian era is a convenient term for the years from the end of the nineteenth century to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

The First World War, 1914–18

The years from August 1914 to November 1918 saw the First World War, or the ‘Great War’ as it was then known. For some historians the war was the tragic climax to the ‘long nineteenth century’ that began with the French Revolution in 1789 and ended with the catastrophe of 1914 to 1918. There are many military histories of the First World War. However, its history is also studied for its consequences upon British society, culture, the economy and politics, both during the conflict and in its aftermath.

Because the First World War also witnessed the tragic culmination of Victorian and Edwardian militarism, and had a profound effect on Britain, it can usefully be included within other longer-term periodisations, from 1900 to 1918 and from 1914 to 1945, to give just two examples. For a country at war sees ends and beginnings, as well as drastic changes and accelerations in historical phenomena with both immediate and longer-term consequences.

The interwar period, 1918–39

The years from the end of the First World War to the outbreak of the Second form the interwar period. They were characterised by major social and economic changes and by the realignment of party politics. Again, there is room for overlap between the wars and the periods that preceded or followed them. For example, during the earliest weeks of the Second World War, plans for civil defence drawn up over previous years were put into place, and the legacy of appeasement between 1936 and 1939 became tragically evident into the war itself.

The Second World War, 1939–45

From the outbreak of the conflict in September 1939 to what is known as Victory over Europe Day (VE Day) in May 1945, the time span of the Second World War is relatively straightforward. However, historians sometimes date the ending of the conflict proper to August 1945, with the victory over Japan (VJ Day). Beyond military histories, the home front has been increasingly studied by social, cultural and political historians.

Many historians of Britain since the Second World War begin their analysis during the war itself, in order to grasp its longer-term effects from 1939. Addressing the nature of society and politics during the war encourages a focus upon forward linkages from wartime experiences and policy formation into peacetime.

Postwar Britain, 1945 to varying dates

The time frame of postwar Britain usually begins in 1945, with the defeat of Nazi Germany, and the near simultaneous general election of that year, which resulted in a momentous victory for the Labour Party. But when does the postwar period end? One possible year is 1973, with the impact of the oil crisis. Or did it cease with the year 1999, when the twentieth century ended? Or are we still living through it, until Britain endures another major war on its soil? Most historians of Britain since the Second World War wisely avoid the issue, treating the years from 1945 as a moveable feast in terms of when the period terminates.

Other time frames

Historians also divide the twentieth century into other periods. For example, a social history of Britain that ranges from the 1880s until 1914, or incorporates both Victorian Britain and the Edwardian era, can justify this time frame in relation to some key themes: the growing levels of poverty during the 1880s and since; the intellectual and political responses to it that led to New Liberalism, the beginnings of tariff reform, the growing popularity of socialism, and the rise of the Labour movement.

In recent years there has been a study of shorter time periods, notably within the postwar years. The study of austerity from 1945 to 1951 is a key example, because this period was distinguished by the recovery of war-damaged Britain and by a historically significant Labour government that, against great difficulties, instigated the welfare state and introduced a mixed economy.

Decades

Historians also focus upon decades not only because they form a convenient ten-year time frame, but also because decades were often characterised and even defined by significant social, cultural, economic and political phenomena. Any historian of a decade also understands that no ten-year time span is hermetically sealed, but rather is connected with earlier causes and later consequences.

The first two decades of the twentieth century tend not to be treated separately and distinctly because the short time span from 1900 to 1914 is a distinct period in itself—Edwardian Britain—which was abruptly terminated by the First World War.

In the aftermath of the First World War, the 1920s comprised a decade of contrasts. The economy endured major problems in industrial relations and high levels of unemployment on account of problems in the staple industries. Yet new industries sprang up across Britain, particularly in South-East England, London and the Midlands. Both socially and politically, the decade witnessed the incorporation of women into the franchise on equal terms with men. It saw the rise of communism and the beginnings of fascism, and the demise of the Liberal Party as Labour consolidated its growth and formed two minority governments.

The 1930s—sometimes called ‘the devil’s decade’ – are still strongly associated with images of high unemployment and social problems during the Great Depression. The geography of economic decline and growth became painfully evident, as the industrialised distressed areas or special areas saw high levels of unemployment in the staple industries or the older manufacturing sectors, while other areas of Britain enjoyed investment from new industries and service sector expansion. Nominally beginning with the slump at the end of the 1920s, and ending with the onset of the Second World War, this was a fascinating decade of extremes: fascism threatened; hunger marches reminded millions of the plight of the poor, but politics and public opinion remained mostly moderate in temper. For most people, living standards and opportunities to enjoy leisure actually improved during the 1930s.

The 1940s witnessed the lows and highs that came with war, victory and readjustment to peace. Some studies of the decade, for example, assess popular politics and the Labour Party both in wartime and in the five or so years after the war was over because they seek to examine the relationship between political attitudes during war and early peacetime values. The 1950s are also increasingly studied by historians. Key reasons for this include the transition from the austerity of the years between 1945 and 1951 to full employment and affluence. This corresponded with three successive victories of the Conservative Party following the Labour governments of 1945–51.

As any fan of popular music or follower of fashion will be aware, the 1960s have been the subject of many histories because the decade witnessed new heights of cultural innovation and experimentation in popular culture. This was accompanied by a growing permissiveness and liberalisation in the social and cultural policies of government and in the values of millions of British people. The relationship between sexuality and society, from censorship to contraception, began to change rapidly. A conservative backlash against these trends also occurred.

The 1970s both intersected with the 1960s and generated a distinctive image. It is argued by some historians that the zeitgeist of the 1960s carried over into the early 1970s until the decade became beset with economic problems. The oil crisis, the return of mass unemployment and worsening industrial relations are typical fare on the menu of the 1970s. Politically, the rise of Thatcherism within this socio-economic background is commonly viewed as a break with the consensus politics that had endured since the later 1940s. British popular music, however, was hugely inventive and exciting during this decade.

The 1980s have been increasingly examined as the decade dominated by the right-wing conservative politics of Thatcherism. The weakness of political opposition was clearly evident: the Labour Party during the 1980s was in no position to be elected to government. Many conservative historians thus see the 1980s as the decade that remade Britain: the restructuring of the economy and the wave of patriotism generated by the Falklands War of 1982 restored self-confidence in Britain following the problems of the previous decade. During the 1990s, the long period of Conservative government came to an end, and in 1997 a new political agenda was evident in the rise of New Labour.

This last point is an important reminder that most historians never focus completely on one decade in isolation: they look for continuities between decades, and try to identify the consequences of a decade of change in its immediate or medium-term aftermath. The social and cultural innovations now associated with the 1960s, and the economic problems of the 1970s, for example, did not simply begin on the first day of each decade and end on 31 December 1969 or 1979.

On modern and contemporary history

The twentieth century witnessed the overlap between modern and contemporary history. By the modern period in Britain, historians often refer to the beginnings of mass urbanisation and industrialisation during the mid-eighteenth century, through to a cut-off date during the twentieth century. That cut-off date has been the First World War, the Second World War, and even later, including the present day. ‘Modern’ is a flexible adjective, and the time span associated with it is also moveable.

Historians also debate the legitimate temporal beginning of the ‘contemporary’ period. According to John Barnes, this is usefully viewed as the period within living memory for the majority of people. Hence the interwar period by this temporal definition may be viewed within the broad era of ‘contemporary’ history today. For the Centre for Contemporary British History, however, the years since 1945 define the contemporary period, and this appears to be the starting point that most historians are happy with—although some may begin with 1939, the start rather than the end of the Second World War. One thing is certain, however: contemporary history is equally as valid as the history of earlier times. And contemporary history is as ancient as history itself. In ancient Greece and ancient Rome, for example, many scribes were recording and commenting upon very recent history. ...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Acknowledgements
• Part I Introduction and overview of twentieth-century Britain
• Part II Landmarks
• Part III Historiography and A–Z of key historians of twentieth-century Britain
• Part IV Sources and resources
• Part V Biographies
• Part VI Dictionary
• Bibliography