Chapter 1
Introduction
Michael Osborne, Muir Houston and Nuala Toman
This book brings together a selection of contemporary international research related to pedagogical matters in the field of lifelong learning and teaching. It builds on two previous research-based volumes (on widening participation (Osborne et al. 2003) and learning outside the academy (Edwards et al. 2005)) on themes within the domain of lifelong learning. Specifically, the book draws upon and develops presentations made at the third international Centre for Research in Lifelong Learning (CRLL)1 conference in June 2005. The conference was inspired by the fact that CRLL itself hosts a number of research projects with the UKâs Teaching and Learning Research Programme (TLRP), funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the Scottish Executive. These projects focus on lifelong learning, higher education, community-based learning, and literacy practices in further education, and in themselves have strong international dimensions. Using this work as an inspiration, the conference sought to review more widely emerging issues from researching teaching and learning in different post-school contexts, an issue which has grown in research importance around the world in recent years, with the concern both to widen participation and improve student attainment. This book seeks to examine empirically, methodologically and theoretically contemporary research in teaching and learning in diverse contexts. It focuses on three main areas: learning careers and identities; pedagogy and learning cultures; and learning beyond institutions.
The chapters in first section of the book concentrate on the long-standing interest amongst researchers in the role of educational context in shaping identities and cultures (e.g. Becker et al. 1968; Dubet 1994). This has been emphasised in particular within the field of higher education and in so doing such work has extended our notions of learning outcomes to areas such as attitudes, values, confidence, personal autonomy, self-esteem and moral development (Pascarella and Terenzini 1991, 2005). More recently the relationship between identity and learning, and the way in which individuals pursue a career as learners, has become a concern in other sectors of post-compulsory education, within the non-formal sector and in informal learning sites, with the work of Bloomer and Hodkinson (2000) in particular popularising these concepts. The related notion of learning trajectory has also become a common theoretical base for studies of teaching and learning in post-compulsory settings, including in vocational education (see Crossan et al. 2003), and refers to the aggregate of an individualâs learning experiences across the life span, determined by social capital, contextual factors, and individual choices that reflect learner identity (Gorard 2002). Thus in this part of the collection the chapters deal with questions of learning identity, learning careers and trajectories in a range of different locational contexts, and pays particular attention to the experiences of diverse learners, including those with low attainment and in both formal and informal contexts. The opening chapter in this section, by Janice Malcolm and Miriam Zukas, is the first of two chapters which deal specifically with the higher education context. However, whilst for Malcolm and Zukas the focus is on academic staff, Elisabet Weedon and Sheila Riddell consider a specific sub-group of students.
Within an overall context of academic identity formation, Malcolm and Zukas examine in terms of structural differences the separation between teaching and research within UK higher education. They suggest that this division is continued and conditioned by reasons of policy and culture. In terms of policy, they suggest that differential rewards are offered to universities in terms of funding for the purposes of teaching and research activities; while in terms of culture they argue that individual promotion and institutional kudos are more readily awarded in relation to research rather than teaching. Despite this apparent separation, much research (e.g. Hattie and Marsh 1996, 2002) has suggested some form of ânexusâ between the research and teaching functions of universities and, indeed, academics themselves often claim that a dialectical relationship exists between the two. However, Malcolm and Zukas (2000) suggest that pedagogy has been somewhat neglected in analyses of the epistemological and social characteristics of academic identities which tend to emphasise research as the focus of academic work. Through a series of vignettes the authors examine the ways in which the practice of knowledge production is experienced by academics through their teaching (Becher and Trowler 2001). This is followed by an examination of what they term artificial dichotomies between: research and teaching; and disciplinary and pedagogic identities. Finally, a rationale for the demise of these dichotomies is presented (Zukas and Malcolm 2007).
In Weedon and Riddellâs chapter, the object of analysis is the differential experience of dyslexic students in higher education. To examine similarities and differences in student populations and perceptions they present survey data from four universities. They provide an overview of dyslexia research and note difficulties of definition and diagnosis (e.g. Hatcher et al. 2002; McLaughlin 2004). However they note that dyslexic students now constitute the largest single group of disabled students in UK higher education and argue that the rise in the number of dyslexic students is attributable to three main factors: earlier identification in school; the Disabled Studentsâ Allowance; and an increase in mature students. The institutions comprise two pre-1992 and two post-1992 institutions, and differences in terms of location, size and the composition of the student population are reported. The main findings from the survey research deal with the evidence for inclusive practices in relation to support services focused on disabled and specifically dyslexic students. Issues examined include: studentsâ perceptions of inclusive practices in relation to, for example, taking notes, reading materials and completing assignments on time; the range and flexibility of the assessment regime, with a focus on the specific difficulties dyslexic students face in relation to particular assessment instruments; and perceptions of academic support. While differences appear between the four institutions, Weedon and Riddell also note differences in access to support within institutions. Overall, while noting that progress is being made in the provision of support and assistance to dyslexic students the picture from this chapter suggests that much has yet to be done.
John Stevensonâs chapter shifts the contextual focus to the workplace, in an attempt to provide an answer to the question of âmeaningâ and how it is âmadeâ through reference to two main theoretical perspectives. Drawing on both Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives, Stevenson explores how âmeaningâ is acquired. In the first part of the chapter, findings about values, literacy, use of technology and problem solving within the context of motel front offices are reported. Drawing on a range of perspectives, including Engeströmâs (1987, 1999, 2001) conceptualisation of an activity system, Bevenâs âsituated cognition lensâ (2002), and the cognitive theory of Middleton (2002), Stevenson finds that for each of the activities under investigation the making of meaning is highly contextualised. Stevensonâs purpose is two-fold: firstly, to understand how abstracted concepts can be translated into everyday settings; and secondly, how the concepts can be meaningfully applied in new situations. For Stevenson, this is akin to the Piagetian concept of accommodation and similar to the interaction of spontaneous and scientific concepts developed by Vygotsky. However, Stevenson recognises that this transition is not without struggle and illustrates the apprehension and discomfort individuals can experience when this transformation of meaning takes place. However, Stevenson also reports feelings of empowerment when new meanings are made. In both the studies in this section, Stevenson reports evidence of a struggle to render existing meaning in new ways. In concluding, Stevenson suggests that the making of meaning and the role of accommodation are important for the development of a pedagogy for lifelong learning where the role of the educator or trainer is to involve learners in activities which are accessible and meaningful but must be applied in diverse contexts.
The focus for Brian Findsen and Lucilla Carvalho is on older adultsâ learning patterns and what this means in terms of trajectory and changes to identity. They examine formal, informal and non-formal learning and the influence of group membership on learning trajectories and changes in learnersâ self-conceptualisation. Specifically, they wish to discover if motivation for learning changes from an instrumental approach allied to a vocational outcome to an expressive approach associated with greater leisure time. Drawing on a qualitative methodology, the research focuses on existing groups of older learners in two different locations in New Zealand. Their sample were mostly in the 65â74 age range; tended to be from a middle-class background; had a relatively high level of previous educational experience; and were generally in good health. In reporting the findings, a range of motives for connecting with lifelong learning are proposed which include the pervasiveness of learning; its potential to provide new insights; the positive health benefits; and, even in later life, the positive influence of role models. In relation to context, Findsen and Carvalho examine how differences in context mirror differences in the purpose and nature of study. One impression gained was that the active theory of retirement (Laslett 1989) is supported for these third age learners and that learning whether in formal, informal or non-formal contexts is important for many in developing new social relationships, particularly as existing ones tied to previous employment become less important or possible. Overall, Findsen and Carvalho suggest that the dichotomy proposed by Glendinning (2000) in relation to instrumental versus expressive motivation is largely redundant and in addition participants do not adhere to gender stereotypes where males exhibit instrumental motives and females exhibit expressive motives for learning. Finally, they suggest that the rule rather than the exception is for older adults to maximise life chances not only for personal growth but also for the benefit of the wider community.
The final chapter in this section, by John Field and Irene Malcolm, also utilises age as a factor in changing attitudes and behaviours in adult learning. Using a concept of time that incorporates both historical and generational aspects, Field and Malcolm through adoption of a life-history approach seek to understand how this can impact on peopleâs orientation towards learning. Firstly, they examine debates which suggest ways in which age interacts with learning and report that survey findings consistently show that participation in learning declines by age (e.g. OâDonnell and Chapman 2006; Sargant and Aldridge 2002). For Field and Malcolm, increasing interest in age inequalities in educational participation is primarily driven by two separate but related developments. The first is the increasing interest in the social and policy implications of ageing (Tuckett and MacAulay 2005); while the second is the development of social models of ageing which investigate not only the way age and old age are socially constructed, but also the ways in which older people shape their lives (Phillipson 1998). However, despite recognising existing research they point to some notable limitations, at least in the British context. They introduce the concept of generation as developed by Mannheim (1952) to investigate relationships between age, values and behaviour, and also take note of studies which supplement this through reference to the work of Bourdieu (1993). The framework outlined above is then operationalised through a life history approach to consider the shifts in trajectories and identities of two different subjects. What is of interest in these case stories is the different role that generational and historical time plays in each.
The second section focuses on the role of pedagogy in developing learning culture and the ways in which cultures of organisations and communities facilitate, prescribe and determine learning, and once again considers these issues within different sites of post-compulsory learning. On the one hand, learning in formal settings may be contingent on particular sets of disciplinary power, regulations and time/space relationships, with students exerting little by way of agency, as in Nesporâs (1994) classic study of higher education. By contrast, other sites of learning provide much greater opportunity for collaborative learning and negotiation between teacher and learner, as exemplified in much recent work in the domain of communities of practice. In this section, sites from which research is presented include vocational education institutions, workplaces, higher education and community settings.
Darryl Dymockâs chapter is broadly located within domains, variously referred to as âthe learning region/cityâ and âlearning communitiesâ, that can be traced back to the pioneering work of the OECD (1973, 2001a) and which has attracted considerable attention in recent years, particularly in Europe (see Longworth 2006; Sankey and Osborne 2006). Here he is concerned with sparsely-populated rural Australian communities, in particular an area of some 4,500 people, with around 1,850 of these resident in the largest town. The research was undertaken in conjunction with a local council, and its purpose was to identify learning needs, opportunities and barriers, and to make recommendations that might help the area develop its learning capability. It considers the development of learning communities in a rural context and mechanisms of knowledge development that extend beyond formal approaches. There are questions, however, as to the extent to which small rural towns without an existing vision for learning and with limited local government and community resources can provide the learning support necessary to develop a learning culture. This can include people resources associated with sharing tasks required in vocational education and training. There are also issues about adultsâ motivations to learn, participation in adult education and the extent of purposive but often unacknowledged learning. The development of a learning culture is also part of the concept of a learning community, and has been explored internationally in recent years in Canada, the United States, Europe and the United Kingdom, as well as Australia (Faris and Wheeler 2006). The chapter addresses: the differing conceptions of learning amongst people in a small rural community and the implications for pedagogy therein; the extent to which small town learning needs differ from metropolitan areas; the identification of realistic responses to learning needs for more isolated communities, including the extent to which individual needs can be catered for; the value and practicality of utilising local skills and knowledge; and mechanisms through which to best promote learning opportunities and support learning in small rural communities.
Carmichael and colleagues present research from a TLRP project involving two universities and four UK further education (FE) colleges. The research draws on existing work concerned with literacy practices engaged in by individuals in schools, higher education and the community, and seeks to extend the insights gained from these studies into FE. It aims to explore the literacy practices of students and those practices developed in different parts of the curriculum and develops pedagogic interventions to support studentsâ learning more effectively. The work involves examining literacy across the many domains of peopleâs experiences, the ways in which these practices are mobilised and realised within these different domains, and their capacity to be mobilised and recontextualised elsewhere to support learning. One of the premises for the project is that literacy practices of institutions are not always fashioned around the resources that students bring to college life â indeed college staff may be unaware of these potential resources. The intention of the research is to achieve a critical understanding of the movement and flows of literacy practices in peopleâs lives. It seeks to determine how literacy practices are ordered and re-ordered, networked or overlapped across domains, across social roles in studentsâ lives and what objects might mediate such mobilisations. The research raises many theoretical, methodological and practical challenges, not least in ensuring validity across four curriculum areas in four sites, drawing upon the collaboration of 16 practitioner researchers. Drawing on the analysis of initial empirical data, the chapter examines staff assumptions about studentsâ learning and their consequences in terms of the texts they use in their teaching and the literacy practices expected of students.
Anna-Lena Göranssen considers how a group of firefighters, who consistently maintain that they are âpractitioners and not theoristsâ, relate to various forms of language-based knowledge and âknowledgingâ in their problem-based vocational learning. The study considers how learning can take place with the aid of words and actions, and how the verbal manners and attitudes towards language and language use of teachers and students might impact upon or even prevent learning. In this context the significance of how we communicate, read, write and learn is considered. The chapter considers how despite their intentions, teaching methods can sometimes fail to stimulate reading or writing, formal classroom interaction, abstract thinking or generalisation. It presents examples in which firefighters have built strong bonds of trust and respect with each other, but may distrust teachersâ knowledge and their pedagogical skills; study questions formulated by teachers often failed to stimulate critical and analytical knowledge searching. In this sense, approaches to âknowledgingâ can become instrumental and consist of strategic or ritualistic actions. The firefighters in this study formed a collective of more or less experienced firefighters and the workplaceâs unwritten and written rules and power structures appear to follow them into the ...
