Sexual Aggression

Issues In Etiology, Assessment And Treatment

Donald Hall

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9781560322689
• eBook ISBN: 9781134936816
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Human Sexuality in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Rape is an increasingly serious social problem; the causes of which are poorly understood and preventative measures are, to date, ineffective. This book provides the reader with theory and research on rapists including adolescents, college students and criminals. Chapters discuss biological, psychological and social causes of rape and investigate recently developed clinical methods which provide hope for decreasing and preventing rape.; Whilst the empowerment of victims and potential victims of sexual aggression is critically important, there is no other type of aggressive sexual act in which the victim is so routinely blamed. This volume serves to shift the emphasis away from victim responsibility and so assist in the understanding, treatment and prevention of sexually active behaviour. lt provides a broad insight into family, cultural and evolutionary influences affecting rapists and details comprehensive Approaches To Treatment Which Take In Motivational Variables And Allow for follow up.

1

CONCEPTUALIZING SEXUAL AGGRESSION: PROGRESS AND FUTURE NEEDS

Gordon C. Nagayama Hall

Richard Hirschman

Kent State University

Sexually aggressive behavior is a biopsychosocial phenomenon that primarily is engaged in by males. The multidetermined nature of sexual aggression is reflected in the wide range of different forms of sexually aggressive behavior that are addressed in this volume. Although much recent scholarly work on sexual aggression has addressed victim issues (e.g., Coyne & Downey, 1991; Hanson, 1990; Koss & Burkhart, 1989; Mandoki & Burkhart, 1991; Wyatt, Notgrass, & Newcomb, 1990), this volume focuses on the perpetrators of sexual aggression who ultimately are responsible for the act (Gilbert, Heesacker, & Gannon, 1991). Although the empowerment of victims and potential victims of sexual aggression is critically important (Harney & Muehlenhard, 1991; Levine-MacCombie & Koss, 1986; Prentky, Burgess, & Carter, 1986), there is no other type of aggressive act (e.g., murder, burglary, assault) in which the victim is so routinely blamed (White & Sorenson, 1992). Thus, we hope that our focus on perpetrators serves to shift the emphasis away from victim responsibility and assist in the understanding, treatment, and prevention of sexually aggressive behavior.

Sexually aggressive behavior certainly is not restricted to adults. At one end of the age continuum are sexually aggressive adolescents and preadolescents, as discussed in Becker, Harris, and Sales’ chapter (chapter 12) on juveniles who commit sexual offenses. Although adolescent sexual behavior is often considered exploratory or not deviant, adolescent sexual aggression against victims ages 12 or over appears common (Fagan & Wexler, 1986). Moreover, many men who are sexually aggressive as adults began their “careers” during adolescence.

The behavior of college students might be considered the next stage on the age continuum. Barbaree and Serin (chapter 6) review studies in which college men’s sexual arousal in response to rape stimuli has been disinhibited by variables such as anger and cognitive distortions about a woman. Hall and Hirschman (chapter 7) attempt to identify an observable act of sexual imposition in the laboratory. Their paradigm, in which men present unwanted erotic stimuli to a female confederate, might be considered analogous to a mild form of in vivo sexual aggression.

The work of Malamuth, Heavey, and Linz (chapter 5) involves college men’s self- and partner-reported acts of sexually aggressive behavior. Although some of these college men admitted to rape of women, most admitted to lesser acts of coercive sexual behavior, such as touching a woman against her will. At the extreme end of the continuum are the adult clinical populations described by Prentky and Knight (chapter 4), Marshall (chapter 9), Pithers (chapter 10), and Marques, Day, Nelson, and West (chapter 11). These populations differ from the others in terms of high levels of coercion and physical force.

The heterogeneity of sexually aggressive behavior is also reflected in the range of different variables that have been proposed as motivating it. The broadest approaches are those of Malamuth, Heavey, and Linz (chapter 5) and Ellis (chapter 3), who view sexually aggressive behavior from ecological perspectives that include family, cultural, and evolutionary influences, albeit with different emphases for these influences. The developmental context of sexually aggressive behavior is addressed by Becker, Harris, and Sales in the chapter on juvenile sexual offenders (chapter 12) and by Prentky and Knight’s chapter on adult sexual offenders (chapter 4). Individual motivational factors are central to the work of Barbaree and Serin (chapter 6) and of Hall and Hirschman (chapter 7). Barbaree and Serin discuss the role of sexual arousal in motivating sexually aggressive behavior. In addition to physiological sexual arousal, Hall and Hirschman identify cognitions, affect, and developmentally related personality problems as motivational precursors of sexually aggressive behavior.

The treatment approaches presented by Becker et al., Marshall, Marques et al., and Pithers target many of the individual psychological factors associated with sexually aggressive behavior in the above theoretical models. The treatment approaches for rapists described in this volume have evolved from treatment programs for child molesters. The relative emphasis in treatment that is placed on particular psychological factors differs between rapists and child molesters. Treating anger dyscontrol receives a greater emphasis among violent rapists than it would among less violent child molesters, and deviant sexual arousal is typically less of a primary motivational factor for rapists than it is for child molesters. Similarly, the cognitive distortions of rapists focus on women rather than on children.

Because most sexual aggressors eventually will be returned to the community, treatment is warranted from a cost-benefit perspective. Victim- and offender-related treatment and incarceration costs per each reoffense of child molesters totaled approximately $180,000 in a recent study (Prentky & Burgess, 1990). These costs to society underscore the importance of understanding, treating, and preventing sexually aggressive behavior.

When treatment programs have been implemented via social policy, the policy seldom has included a mandate for program evaluation. Treatment programs typically are evaluated only when there is a perceived failure, such as a highly publicized reoffense. Programs with an evaluation mandate, such as Marques’ California sex offender treatment program, are exceptional. However, the equivocal effectiveness of treatment programs for sexual aggressors against adults warrants evaluation of all treatment methods with this population (Becker et al, chapter 12; Hall, Shondrick, & Hirschman, in press).

The purpose of this volume is to present state-of-the-science theory and research on sexual aggression. We believe that the major approaches to sexual aggression are represented in this volume. We hope that this volume stimulates future research and clinical advances in understanding, treating, and preventing sexually aggressive behavior.

REFERENCES

Coyne, J. C., & Downey, G. (1991). Social factors and psychopathology: Stress, social support, and coping processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 42,401–425.

Fagan, J., & Wexler, S. (1986). Explanations of sexual assault among violent delinquents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 3, 363–385.

Gilbert, B. J., Heesacker, M., & Gannon, L. J. (1991). Changing the sexual aggression-supportive attitudes of men: A psychoeducational intervention. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 197–203.

Hall, G. C. N. (1988). Criminal behavior as a function of clinical and actuarial variables in a sexual offender population. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 773–775.

Hall, G. C. N., Shondrick, D. D., & Hirschman, R. (in press). Conceptually-derived treatments for sexual aggressors. Professional psychology: Research and practice.

Hanson, R. (1990). The psychological impact of sexual assault on women and children: A review. Annals of Sex Research, 3, 187–232.

Harney, R A., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (1991). Factors that increase the likelihood of victimization. In A. Parrot & L. Bechhofer (Eds.), Acquaintance rape: The hidden crime (pp. 159–175). New York: Wiley.

Koss, M. P., & Burkhart, B. R. (1989). A conceptual analysis of rape victimization: Long-term effects and implications for treatment. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13, 27–40.

Levine-MacCombie, J., & Koss, M. P. (1986). Acquaintance rape: Effective avoidance strategies. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 311–319.

Mandoki, C. A., & Burkhart, B. R. (1991). Women as victims: Antecedents and consequences of acquaintance rape. In A. Parrot & L. Bechhofer (Eds.), Acquaintance rape: The hidden crime (pp. 176–191). New York:Wiley.

Prentky, R., Burgess, A. W., Carter, D. L. (1986). Victim responses by rapist type: an empirical and clinical analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 73–98.

Prentky, R., & Burgess, A. W (1990). Rehabilitation of child molesters: A cost-benefit analysis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 108–117.

White, J. W., & Sorenson, S. B. (1992). A sociocultural view of sexual assault. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 187–195.

Wyatt, G. E., Notgrass, C. M., & Newcomb, M. (1990). Internal and external mediators of women’s rape experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 153–176.

I

ETIOLOGY AND ASSESSMENT

2

INTRODUCTION: ETIOLOGY AND ASSESSMENT

Lori L. Oliver

Karen Chambers

Kent State University

ETIOLOGY

Feminist, evolutionary, and social learning perspectives of sexual aggression could provide organizing contexts for understanding the specific etiological factors of sexual aggression as described in the following chapters. For example, in feminist theory, rape is primarily an economically and politically driven event. Presumably most or all women are affected by the possibility of rape, because this possibility may change women’s behavior (Brownmiller, 1975; Donat & D’Emilio, 1992; Griffin, 1971; Riger & Gordon, 1981). Sexual aggression can also be viewed as a consequence of women failing to follow gender-role stereotypes. Female gender-role stereotypes often are negative, particularly relative to male gender-role stereotypes (Sanday, 1981). Masculinity often is associated with power, dominance, and strength, whereas femininity often is associated with submissiveness, passivity, and weakness (Scully & Marolla, 1985). According to this perspective, rape is motivated more by a desire to dominate and be in control than for sexual pleasure (Brownmiller, 1975; Scully & Marolla, 1985). Support for this view is seen by males’ hostility toward women and males’ sexually aggressive acts. If a man is relatively high in hostility, the woman’s suffering during a sexually aggressive act will not inhibit his sexual arousal and may reinforce it (Malamuth, 1981, 1986). Feminists often assert that the prevention of sexual assault lies in the establishment of economic and political equality between the sexes (Brownmiller, 1975; Riger & Gordon, 1981). Educating women to be assertive (Donat & D’Emilio, 1992; Griffin, 1971) as well as educating men not to rape, through attitude and behavioral modification (Donat & D’Emilio, 1992), are also feminist strategies for prevention of sexual assault.

Evolutionary theory is based on the study of the historical adaptation of species to the environment. Biologists study adaptations as long-term products of nonrandom differential reproduction of individuals (Thornhill & Thornhill, 1991). There are both proximate and evolutionary causes for biological characteristics that impact on the success or failure of adaptation. Proximate explanations include immediate causes leading to the expression of a characteristic (e.g., biochemical, developmental, social, and learning causes). Evolutionary explanations focus on causes that exist throughout evolutionary history and lead to the selection of a biological characteristic (Thornhill & Thornhill, 1983). Evolutionary theorists point to many factors of sexual coercion that may have their basis in evolutionary history and different reproductive strategies. One speculative view is that whereas men may attempt to produce many offspring and invest little in each offspring, women are likely to have few offspring and invest a great deal in each offspring (Ellis, 1991). Because women have a greater investment in their offspring, they are...

Table of contents

• Front Cover
• Half Title
• Series in Applied Psychology: Social Issues and Questions
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• CONTENTS
• Contributors
• Preface
• 1 Conceptualizing Sexual Aggression: Progress and Future Needs
• I ETIOLOGY AND ASSESSMENT
• II TREATMENT
• Index