Exploring Immigrant and Sexual Minority Mental Health

Reconsidering Multiculturalism

Pavna K. Sodhi

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781135018139
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Psychotherapy
• Index: Psychology

Exploring Immigrant and Sexual Minority Mental Health provides mental health practitioners with up-to-date theory, cutting-edge research, and therapeutic strategies to assist them in their work with multicultural clients. By focusing on the immigrant psyche, this volume hones in on appropriate counseling interventions and effective, culturally-specific psychotherapeutic practices by introducing the use of Diversity and Identity Formation Therapy (DIFT), a theoretical concept designed for immigrant and sexual minority identity formation. This work can be used in interdisciplinary settings and is applicable for those working in a number of mental health disciplines including counseling, social work, therapy, and more.

Part I

Migration Patterns and Diasporic Experiences

Introduction

A mind cannot be independent of culture.

(Lev Vygotsky, 1978)

Every ­decade brings an influx of immigrants to North America, adding a unique layer to our already vibrant multicultural and heterogeneous society (Berry, 1984; DeHann, 2010; Jimenez, 2010; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001; Pozniak, 2009). Unfortunately, there is ambivalence conveyed by the host society that creates tentativeness around immigration and how these new migrants will personally, politically, and economically affect the dominant society (Aranda & Vaquera, 2011; Paat & Pellebon, 2012).

Immigration patterns, triumphs, and challenges continue to be carefully researched via a variety of theoretical frameworks and contexts (Berry, 2001; Jasso, 2011; Sodhi, 2007). Yet, there appears to be a dearth of information concerning pre-migration experiences, how immigrants effectively thrive in their new homeland, and, specifically, the outcomes of these migratory transitions on the immigrant psyche (Ng & Northcott, 2010; Phinney & Ong, 2007; Schwartz, Montgomery, & Briones, 2006).

In North America, one in five individuals is a first- or second-generation immigrant (Jensen, 2001; Passel, 2011; Statistics Canada, 2011). Second-generation immigrants represent a huge portion of the North American population, which will continue to grow to 25 percent of the nation’s population by 2050 (Passel, 2011). Additionally, immigrants contribute to two-thirds of Canada’s population, with the highest migration of individuals originating from developing countries (Brady, 2007; Statistics Canada, 2011).

Various theorists have alluded to the concept of immigration and how it contributes to the evolution of multiculturalism (Berry, 2001; Haque, 2012; Tomar, 1992). Berry coined the term “intercultural space” to describe the amalgamation of cultural boundaries and social relationships. He believes that women and men experience the act of immigration differently, in that their ethnic identities and responsibilities are renegotiated as a result of ­community and host culture interactions and expectations. Eventually, he suggests, there is an integration of sorts that occurs between cultural diversity and mutual accommodation, thus adding a distinctive aspect to the realm of multiculturalism (Rumbaut, 1997).

Immigration is one of the most emotional experiences an immigrant ­family can endure, particularly as it distances them from their extended family, community, cultural values, and languages from their home country and, consequently, displaces them in unfamiliar surroundings. Immigrating either as a family or individually provides insight into how the mode of entry and immigrant origins affect the preservation of culture within the family (Clark, Glick, & Bures, 2009). Wexler (2010) elaborated on this notion:

A multitude of special challenges face the immigrant in the work place, many, for example, related to cultural variations in ways of doing and expressing things and cultural differences in negotiating hierarchical relationships. Many immigrants do not achieve the same levels of status and responsibility they would have had in their countries of origin, altering family dynamics. Family relationships are further strained by the greater ease with which children incorporate the customs of the new culture. As with bereavement, the disjunctions between internal and external [challenges] occasioned by immigration are associated with psychiatric morbidity, but in this case it is multigenerational.

(p. 19)

He adds that for an immigrant to successfully integrate into the dominant culture, a mourning process and transition should take place, whereby the individual legitimately misses qualities of his or her country of origin but also starts liking aspects of the new culture (e.g., events, movies, food) (Wexler, 2006).

Transnational ties, dominant culture experiences, and diverse immigrant origins influence immigrant family patterns, as well. It should be recognized that an immigrant’s age and time of migration can have an impact on his or her ability to integrate into the dominant culture and embrace other monumental life transitions (e.g., marriage, having children, securing long-term employment) (Rothe, Pumariega, & Sabagh, 2011). This may, in turn, become intergenerational and disrupt family patterns and cultural preservation over time.

There is a myriad of research literature on migration and diasporic experiences, which is complex and multifaceted (Connor, 2010; Paat, 2013; Portes & Rumbaut, 1996). This section will provide a comprehensive overview of how immigration has built upon North America’s ongoing quest to preserve multiculturalism. In addition, it will explore the intersectionality of four perennial themes: pre-migration visions, reasons for immigration, and post-migration obstacles and challenges; the family context; employment barriers and financial stability; and mental health concerns.

References

Aranda E. & Vaquera , E. (2011). Unwelcomed immigrants: Experiences with immigration officials and attachment to the United States. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 27(3), 299–321.

Berry , J. W. (1984). Multicultural policy in Canada: A social psychological analysis. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 16, 353–370.

Berry , J. W. (2001). A psychology of immigration. Journal of Social Issues, 57(30), 615–631.

Brady , D. (2007). Institutional, economic, or solidaristic? Assessing explanations for unionization across affluent democracies. Work and Occupations, 34(1), 67–101.

Clark , R. L., Glick , J. E., & Bures , R. M. (2009). Immigrant families over the life course: Research directions and needs. Journal of Family Issues, 30, 852–872.

Connor , P. (2010). Explaining the refugee gap: Economic outcomes of refugees versus other immigrants. Journal of Refugee Studies, 23(3), 377–397.

DeHann , K. A. (2010). Negotiating the transnational moment: Immigrant letters as performance of a diasporic identity. National Identities, 12(2), 107–131.

Haque , E. (2012). Multiculturalism within a bilingual framework: Language, race, and belonging in Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

Jasso , G. (2011). Migration and stratification. Social Science Research, 40, 1292–1336.

Jensen , L. (2001). The demographic diversity of immigrants and their children. In R. G. Rumbaut & A. Portes (eds), Ethnicities: Children of Immigrants in America (pp. 21−56). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Jimenez , T. R. (2010). Affiliative ethnic identity: a more elastic link between ethnic ancestry and culture. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(10), 1756–1775.

Ng , C. F. & Northcott , H. C. (2010). The ethnic and national identity of South Asian Immigrant senior living in Edmonton , Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 41/42(3−1), 131–156.

Passel , J. (2011). Demography of immigrant youth: Past, present, and future. Future of Children, 21(1), 19–41.

Paat , Y. F. (2013). Understanding motives for migration in working with immigrant families. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 23, 403–412.

Paat , Y. F. & Pellebon , W. (2012). Ethnic identity formation of immigrant children and implications for practice. Child & Youth Services, 33, 127–145.

Phinney , J. S. & Ong , A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281.

Portes , A. & Rumbaut , R. G. (1996). Immigrant America: A Portrait. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Portes , A. & Rumbaut , R. G. (2001). Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Pozniak , K. (2009). Talking the “immigrant talk”: Immigration narratives and identity construction among Colombian newcomers. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 41(1/2), 173–190.

Rothe , E. M., Pumariega , A. J., & Sabagh , D. (2011). Identity and acculturation in immigrant and second-generation adolescents. Adolescent Psychiatry, 1, 72–81.

Rumbaut , R. G. (1997). Assimilation and its discontents: Between rhetoric and ­reality. International Migration Review, 31, 923–960.

Schwartz , S. J., Montgomery , M. J., & Briones , E. (2006). The role of identity in acculturation among immigrant people: Theoretical propositions, empirical ­questions, and applied recommendations. Human Development, 49, 1–30.

Sodhi , P. (2007). Counselling immigrant women with mental health issues. Workshop presented at the Canadian Psychological Association conference, Ottawa, Ontario, June 7−9, 2007.

Statistics Canada. (2011). 2011 Census: Ethnic origin, visible minorities. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada.

Tomar, M. (1992). Contributions of Indian teachers to the education in Nova Scotia. In M. Tomar (ed.), Indo-Canadian: Their backgrounds and their contributions (pp. 56−58). Halifax, NS: Jupiter Printing Company Limited.

Vygotsky , L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wexler , B. E. (2006). Brain and culture: neurobiology, ideology and social change. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Wexler , B. E. (2010). Neuroplasticity, cultural evolution and cultural difference. World Cultural Psychiatry Research Review, 11–22.

Chapter 1

Pre-Migration Visions, Reasons for Immigration, and Post-Migration Obstacles and Challenges

Pre-Migration Visions and Reasons for Immigration

There is a constellation of events that motivate immigrants to migrate to a new country (Arevalo, Tucker, & Falcon, 2015; Grinberg & Grinberg, 2004; Paat, 2013; Portes & DeWind, 2004; Sodhi, 2002, 2007; Winnicott, 1966). Ogbu (1992) believed that voluntary immigrants journey to a new country ideally to provide a better life for themselves and their families, to explore educational and employment opportunities, and to ameliorate their current standard of living (Paat, 2013; Rothe, Pumariega, & Sabagh, 2011). Push/pull factors may motivate and generate unrealistic visions concerning migration, as noted in the following extracts. A first-generation immigrant indicated:

My pre-migration vision was to go to a rich country of “milk and honey” and get rid of the deprivation that surrounded me throughout my childhood and adult life. I left behind a country which I felt was at a standstill, filled with religious prejudices, no clear goals to rid poverty, and lack of dignity to humanity. Also, by migrating to the Western world I thought there was the possibility of owning a car and a modern house, and upgrading my education leading to a PhD.

Another first-generation immigrant expressed:

My move to North America was due to both personal and professional reasons. On the one hand, my husband had an employment opportunity here and on the other hand, we were looking for long-term settlement in a country that affords better quality of life, and was immigrant friendly. From that sense, Canada looked promising. My pre-migration vision included a good quality of life, viable educational and job prospects and easy transitioning given we were migrating from a neighboring country. Some of the challenges we faced included adapting to the cold weather especially with young kids, lack of social and family support, and transitioning to the workforce.

Ogbu (1992) elaborated that involuntary immigrants/refugees migrate to a new country to escape war, oppression, sociopolitical violence, religious persecution, incarceration, trauma and poverty, and life-threatening conditions (Aranda, 2006). Immigrants are individuals who are legally pursuing permanent residency in North America, whereas involuntary immigrants/refugees are individuals living in North America who fear returning to their country of origin due to the aforementioned reasons (Donnelly, Hwang, Este, Ewashen, Adair, & Clinton, 2011; Jensen, 2001; Mott, 2010; Passel, 2011). There is a c...