News Production

Theory and Practice

Sarah Niblock, David Machin

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781134702459
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Lingue e linguistica
• Subtopic: Studi sulla comunicazione

Bringing to the forefront a much-needed book that bridges the gap between journalistic theory and practice, Sarah Niblock and David Machin provide here an invaluable real-life account of reporting in the context of contemporary newsrooms.

Providing eight detailed ethnographies of eight different news production settings, News Production includes individual chapters that follow two news workers through their daily routines, detailing the exact nature of their jobs.

It provides students with:

• case studies to compare to their own experiences

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• concrete examples to consolidate their skill-based training

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• questions to raise about their placements

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• information on how to prepare reports

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• constraints they may encounter, and how to deal with them.

With chapters including 'News Agencies', 'The Roving Reporter', 'Photojournalism' and 'The New Reporter Learning the Ropes', for anyone taking practical units in news reporting, sub-editing, and law and ethics, News Production will provide them with all the information they need to succeed in this hectic, competitive and exciting world.

1
News journalism

Bridging the ‘theory–practice’ divide

News journalists often describe their thinking as so instinctive that it defies explanation. Split-second decision-making, gut instinct, curiosity and a ‘nose’ for news are highly prized attributes of any reporter or editor working in a fast-paced news environment. The editor of a leading international news agency said that ‘with experience that thought process happens in about one-and-a-half seconds’ (Niblock 1996: 8). Other leading journalists, such as UK flagship news anchor John Humphrys, have publicly lamented the way the news industry of the twenty-first century has been professionalised, and has called for the return to the core values of simplicity and accessibility. After all, he claims, ‘any five-year-old can do my job’. Yet it is evident that journalism has become increasingly a graduate, if not postgraduate, occupation. Fewer and fewer entrants to this dynamic sphere become journalists straight from school, as editors opt for university-educated trainees. Simultaneously, events on a global scale are being transmitted increasingly through the grainy footage of ordinary citizens captured on mobile telephone cameras. Digital technology is changing the staffing needs of newsrooms, the Internet is providing a greater variety of news voices and debate, and over the last two decades waves of deregulation of the market have placed news production under increased commercial pressures. There is an urgent need to examine and update our understanding of how news journalism functions and impacts on our society. If, as journalists claim, newsgathering and production is conducted not through intellectual tools but through experience, tenacity and gut feeling, how do we respond to countless theoretical discussions about news that have emerged since as early as the nineteenth century? Can we – should we – try to accommodate the notion of the ‘thinking practitioner’, the news journalist who reflects on what they do?

A rich, interdisciplinary body of scholarship into news journalism has raised critical concern about the industry. Since the earliest days of mass communication questions have been raised as to the implications of popular journalism, of concentrated ownership, of unacceptable practices, of sexism and racism, of sensationalism and bias, to list but a few. Libraries stock an ever-increasing volume of academic textbooks and research monographs on journalism from media studies, cultural studies, sociology, gender studies and philosophy and communication studies. Academics from these disciplines have joined forces to combine their intellectual approaches in an attempt to offer fresher insights into the rapidly changing journalism context. In-depth studies of the history, development and products and processes of journalism have been undertaken which, it must be said, have proffered ominous and negative conclusions about the nature and integrity of journalism and its millions of practitioners. Now, in the twenty-first century, we have a burgeoning, autonomous branch of scholarship known as journalism studies.

Journalism studies, like other related studies of popular culture such as film and media studies, is emerging out of academic publication and debate. At the time of writing, it has centred on historical and political economic models of journalism. It also incorporates important issues concerning technology, mass communication, political communication, health and science, faith, representation and many more areas. However, what distinguishes journalism studies from the other types of study of the media is its engagement with practitioners. With the proliferation of journalism education in universities and colleges, a growing number of journalism trainers have become part of the wider academic debate on theory. International forums have been created to bring scholars and trainers together, such as the European Journalism Training Association, Association of Journalism Educators in the UK and the Journalism Studies Interest Group in the US. For many who work in higher education, there is frustration expressed about the so-called ‘theory–practice divide’. Practitioners and trainers argue that theoretical models are not produced by working journalists and are therefore not a reflection of the everyday dilemmas and pressures faced in newsrooms. Similarly, theoretical researchers regret that practitioners and trainers are overly resistant to scholarship and reflection. Given the rapid evolution of the news machine from parish pump to global infrastructure, how well have these academic theories kept pace with reality? Or, as one television journalism lecturer put it: ‘You can’t teach students how to “do a Marx” in the BBC newsroom.’ (i.e., what is the point of abstract critical theory if it is not grounded in the everyday practical realities of news?).

A new breed of journalism scholar is arriving on the scene: one who is attempting to find an accommodation between these schools of thought. Journalism education and research are no longer seen as anathema to good practice, judging by the hundreds of fully trained mid-career news people moving into higher education departments on full- or part-time contracts. This, coupled with the growing media literacy of audiences and practitioners, is leading to new lines of scholarly research that foreground practice over theory. New and fascinating illuminations are also emerging from practitioners themselves on what it is like to be faced with challenging professional dilemmas. This is what is being called research into reflective practice.

This book aims to shed new light on the everyday reflective practices of news journalists, by comparing and contrasting real-life case studies with some of the most abiding theories about journalism. In doing so, we wish to explore the efficacy of these theories, identifying their strengths but also the questions they raise. The central, underlying theme of the book is that theory and practice cannot be separated – theory can help to explain practice and practice can help us explore theory. What is particularly original and reflective about our book is the way we engage the journalists from our case studies in our research and critical debate. For too long, researchers have relied on the products of news to assert far-reaching conclusions about the state of modern journalism and the integrity of its practitioners. In other words, they have arrived at conclusions about the nature of the industry not on the basis of an understanding of processes but by reading newspaper texts, or by recording news bulletins. It is our belief, based on conversations with, and employment within, the industry over many years that this has caused great suspicion about the nature and relevance of scholarly inquiry into journalism. How can a sociologist, however skilled and trained in their discipline, know what its like to be on a newsdesk at deadline time? How can the academic possibly comprehend the myriad pressures – institutional, professional, editorial, commercial, psychological – that find their nexus in that split-second news judgement decision? How useful is it to critique the newsmakers if it leads to a complete divorce from and rejection of scholarly activity on the part of the latter group?

We address these concerns directly with professional news journalists. One of the authors is an academic who has been studying the media and audiences for over a decade and has increasingly become concerned about the lack of engagement with practitioners within much scholarly work. The other is a fully trained experienced news journalist, who can understand first-hand the language, pace and decision-making of the journalists she encounters. Instead of looking in on the products of news journalism from the outside, we explore the practices and the people from within. In doing so, some startling, fresh and constructive insights emerge. That is not to say that we do not find areas of concern that require deep interrogation in terms of their implications – this is not intended to be a glowing uncritical endorsement of modern-day news journalism and a rejection of theory. It is quite the opposite. We intend to redress some of what we perceive is the elitist exclusion of real-life journalists from academic discussions about their own work. There are of course a few notable exceptions which we refer to through this study and to whom we are indebted and inspired, such as Howard Tumber, Wendy Bacon, Tony Harcup, Richard Keeble, Ros Coward and others.

Why is this project so very important? In Western societies we view news as invaluable for the operation of our participatory democratic systems. News informs us of issues of economics, social problems, threats to society etc., so that we come to know about the world that is outside our everyday experience. This permits us to make informed judgements about who we choose to vote for or what we choose to buy, for instance. What journalists report on therefore has real effects on people’s lives. A report about a problem with the schooling system, a crime wave or a faulty drug will affect public opinion. This will then place pressure on government policy to change legislation. This may then effect a change on social processes which in turn can be monitored by journalists. What we can see from this is that we cannot have democracy without journalism. Journalism, in this model, carries a massive social responsibility. It is crucial that, especially with the pace of change in the news business, we have in-depth dialogue with journalists and a better understanding of their everyday practices and decision-making.

Exploring the context for the practice of news journalism

This book will investigate and illuminate the everyday decision-making and practices of journalists in context, enabling it to successfully evaluate the efficacy of journalism theories. By context, we mean that contemporary news journalism operates at the nexus of a myriad of factors, both internal and external, that impact upon the practices of the reporter or editor. The consensual view of the role of the journalist is a seeker of truth, the eyes and ears of the people. We find such views widely aired. Michael Grade, in his 2005 inaugural Hugh Cudlipp Lecture at the London College of Communications, said of the BBC: ‘The BBC has a duty to set a gold standard in news reporting, in accuracy, in impartiality, in creating a better understanding’ (Grade 2005). Kevin Marsh, editor of BBC Radio 4’s Today programme, in a speech to the Society of Editors in Autumn 2004, said that some of the important characteristics of good journalism were: ‘Curiosity. Persistence. Toughness… . Ruthlessness with fact.’ Similarly, The American Project for Excellence in Journalism states on its web site, www.journalism.org, that journalism is ‘a discipline of verification’ whose ‘first obligation is to the truth’.

In this model, journalism is about bravely finding the facts and delivering them to the public with neutrality so that the truth can be known. The public does not have the time or resources to be able to find out about why wars are fought, where there are current famines in the world, and what dangers lie outside the home. Reporters dig around to investigate and reveal on the public’s behalf. They select the events that are most relevant to people, find ways to investigate them further and identify sources that can shed light on the central issues. Scholarly research into journalism has traditionally been highly critical of the news industry when it veers from this model of integrity. However, when talking with news professionals, it is immediately apparent that they themselves realise that it is difficult to describe their jobs in these idealistic terms. While we might hope that journalists are the eyes and ears of the public, upholding democracy, there are a range of quite simple constraints, which are a part of the practical everyday nature of news production. The criticism with which most are familiar is that bad journalism or bad news happens when there is bias. But this misses the point, and in fact is a criticism that helps to conceal the real obstacles to impartial reporting. Some of these factors are summarised in Table 1.1, and will be explored in more depth below and referred to throughout the book.

Table 1.1 Obstacles to impartial reporting

Intrinsic – procedural	Extrinsic – historical
Newsworthiness	Legislation
Ownership	Regulatory framework
Training/socialisation	Cultural expectations
Deadlines	Competition
Target audience

Of course this is not a neat model, just as journalism practice cannot be overly simplified or compartmentalised. The Intrinsic – procedural is inescapably historical in the sense that newsroom operations have developed over time through precedent, and continue to evolve in response to technological and commercial developments. In a similar fashion, the regulatory framework evolves in response to Intrinsic – procedural factors, as evidenced in, for example, the extension of ethical codes to Internet journalism.

Intrinsic factors

Newsworthiness

Of all the events that happen in the world everyday, journalists are only able to cover very few of them. Of those few, only a tiny minority will receive front page or top-of-the-bulletin status. Some scholars have criticised journalists themselves for taking a powerful, subjective gate-keeping role that prevents untold stories reaching the headlines. Other scholars claim what is reported is down to proprietorial influences. Journalists themselves say that it is professional routines, lack of space/airtime and sheer gut instinct that determines newsworthiness. This book will examine who is right.

Ownership

Globally commercial news media are concentrated in very few hands. Many journalism scholars view the trend towards media chains, brands and consolidation with concern. Fewer publishers and broadcasters may mean that there are fewer editorial perspectives. However, it may also be argued that large news organisations can cut the costs of production and distribution, offering a bigger share of the budget to newsgathering and presentation. In contrast, journalists may say the profits are top-sliced by the shareholders.

Training/socialisation

Ideas of truth and neutrality, as opposed to their opposites, bias and opinion, are part of the mythology of journalism and when most young journalists decide to move into the field it is these notions that inspire them. Trainee journalists have the impression that throughout their careers, through curiosity and persistence, they will ruthlessly dig out and verify the facts with complete impartiality and share them with the public. The kinds of journalist that are most celebrated in the journalist community are those where some kind of physical danger has lead to the revealing of the facts. Journalist heroes are seen reporting wearing armoured vests as bullets and bombs whizz overhead, as was the case in the invasion of Iraq. But in order for young journalists to make a positive impression on their first employer and progress their careers in this highly competitive and demanding sphere, they must recognise, adhere to and internalise company values. This book will explore the difficult relationship between theoretical notions of ideal journalistic values alongside the real-life concerns and career uncertainties of young journalists.

Deadlines

Production schedules ensure that process can drive content, rather than the other way round, in contemporary newsrooms. Waiting for the ideal source is a luxury as the clock ticks closer to the hour when the presses roll or the bulletin goes on air. Journalism scholars have been critical of the limited array of sources repeatedly featured in news, accusing journalists of opting for establishment, authority figures rather than seeking diverse views. In reality, journalists will find long sought-after quotes cut by sub-editors if there is a shortage of space. Additionally, the pressure to be first with the news, as opposed to the most in-depth, is ever more acute.

Target audience

In the context of fierce competition, journalists are working in ever tighter financial and time constraints and under a new business ethos where news must be designed for specific target audiences. Critics of journalism argue that news is being overly simplified in order to fit in with advertising demographics, to reach mass audiences. Conversely, senior editors claim they are finding new ways of telling stories to audiences and readers who had previously not been catered for.

Extrinsic limitations

Legislation

The legal framework within which journalists operate can both protect and hinder news reporting. Freedom of speech is enshrined in Western legislation, but is increasingly under threat. Recent criticism of media coverage centring on celebrity coverage has led to calls for the outlawing of certain journalism practices such as covert recording. Those with power and money are seeking to control the news media through the courts. Journalists argue, conversely, that the legal obstacles around freedom of information make it very difficult for reporters to investigate matters of great public interest.

Regulatory framework

In a similar way to the legislative framework, journalists work within a regulatory code that seeks to establish and maintain the moral and ethical standards of news reporting. Critics of journalism standards highlight breaches of ethical codes: these in turn damage the trust that the public has for journalists and their integrity. Journalism practitioners may counter that for journalism to be truly a watchdog on democracy, it may sometimes be more ethical to act outside consensual moral codes; that journalists should not be part of a system, but always on its margins.

Cultural expectations

While this book focuses on journalism within the context of Western democracies, it must not be forgotten that journalists operate within a range of cultural contexts that may foreclose opportunities for breadth and depth of coverage. Political controls may impact upon what journalists are allowed to report, which may sometimes be through threat of death. In Western capitalist society, there are still differences of opinion over what role journalists should play. Journalists have a difficult balancing act in terms of satisfying a diversity of expectations. It must also not be forgotten that journalists are not just national, as regional and local reporters have a remit to reflect very different concerns from those based in capital cities. Many argue that it is very hard for them to always reflect their public’s opinions, and that that public is diverse, demanding and ever-changing.

Competition

All journalism is to some extent reliant for its existence on a strong market position. Even public service broadcasting relies on satisfying its licence-payers that it provides best value for money. Academic approaches to journalism have been concerned with an over-emphasis on market concerns in the drive to offer news faster and most attractively. For editors, it is a case of fighting for the survival of their outlet in the competitive marketplace. This has been most evident in the attempts by the quality press to rebrand in order to stem reader losses to the mid-market and tabloid titles.

Sociologists’ and historians’ views of the news media are therefore often quite different from those of journalists themselves, though not always too far removed. This is not to say therefore that good journalism is not possible, only t...