Religious Theories of Personality and Psychotherapy

East Meets West

Frank De Piano, Ashe Mukherjee, Scott Mitchel Kamilar, Lynne M Hagen, Elaine Hartsman, R. Paul Olson

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9781135788957
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psicologia
• Subtopic: Salute mentale in psicologia

Integrate spiritual traditions with psychological healing! In this fascinating volume, clinical practitioners of different religious traditions examine the same clinical case, offering insights, interventions, and explanations of transformation and healing. This practical approach allows them to explore broader issues of personality theory and psychology from the perspectives of various spiritual traditions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Religious Theories of Personality and Psychotherapy addresses both the practical issues of doing psychotherapy and the deeper need to relate psychology and theology. After providing a thorough introduction to the spiritual tradition, each author presents a critical psychological theory of personality and psychotherapy grounded in that tradition. The authors address the questions of what it means to be a person, what causes human distress, and how individuals experience healing. Religious Theories of Personality and Psychotherapy offers profound insights into the urgent issues of human suffering and psychological transformation, including:

• theories of personality structure and human motivation
• the nature of experience and processes of change
• the dialectical relation of theology and psychology
• convergences and difference among the religious psychologies Marrying theory and practice, spirit and psyche, Religious Theories of Personality and Psychotherapy offers profound insights and effective interventions. Mental health professionals, clergy, and scholars in religion, cross-cultural studies, personality, counseling, and psychotherapy will find this breakthrough book a life-changing experience and an invaluable resource.

Chapter 1

Hindu Psychology and the Bhagavad Gita

Asha Mukherjee

INTRODUCTION

Basics and Philosophy of Hinduism

The origin of Hindu religion dates back to at least 6,000 years ago when the Aryan race first immigrated to India through the Himalayas. Another controversial view strongly supported by many scholars, on the basis of excavated evidence (mentioning the Vedas) from two ancient cities (Harappa and Mohanjodaro), dates the origin at 31,000 years ago.¹

Despite some confusion that Hindus appear to worship many different Gods, it is clear to Hindus that all of them are not gods but devatas (deities),² and understood to be aspects or roles of the “one Absolute” or God.³ The Hindu trinity are Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the sustainer; and Shiva, the destroyer of evil and the agent of positive change. Any of the trinitarian deity’s names are often used to refer to the one God. The context determines the reference to either the Almighty or to one specific deity.

Hinduism affirms a monistic worldview of one universal reality. The Supreme Soul (Param-Atman or Brahman) is the one absolute. Brahman dwells within all individuals as atman.⁴ All souls originate from the Supreme, consist of the same divine substance, and eventually reunite with their original source. The “right” time for such spiritual merger varies for each individual soul.

Brahman (the Almighty or the Supreme Spirit), conceptualized as the ideal image in human mind of a possible superior being, includes the culmination of all human values and denial of all human frailties. Scriptures have defined Brahman as the cause and fate of all creation.

The highest level of spiritual purification or “perfection” (perfection here means enhancement, not the abnormal obsessive-compulsive notion of perfection) is a definite qualification for such blissful union. When a soul has become spiritually cleansed almost to the level of the Supreme Soul, it is rewarded by eternal freedom from pain and troubles of life on earth as it reunites with God. This eternal merger leads to ultimate, unimaginable bliss and peace and the person is free from the struggles of the physical life governed by karma. Karma denotes the principle that each soul reaps what it has sown in its past through many different lifetimes or rebirths.⁵

Karma is actions as related to consequences. The term can be understood in literal and broad ways. Literally, it means that good and bad actions of the present lifetime of an individual bring him or her good and bad experiences in the next life upon rebirth. A second scientific meaning is that a cumulative log of all each person does in a lifetime is automatically influential, due to universal natural laws, in determining what is deserved in the future. The idea is similar to “one gets out of life what one gives to it” or “what goes around comes around.” A third possible and psychological meaning can be that selfish actions have the automatic probability of regret, grief due to loss of control over circumstances, depression, and guilt provided the individual has a conscience. A fourth, much broader meaning is that the society reaps the results of its people’s actions over a much longer period. Actions of religious and social reform leaders create better patterns and new laws in a society. Further, if all humans were to perceive a unity of the universe and identify with each other strongly, the birth of a person in the future would be as good as a person’s own symbolic rebirth.

Removal of all past bad karma leads to purification and the individual soul attains nirvana or moksha, which is eternal freedom from the pains and anxieties of cycles of rebirths.⁶ A second meaning is purely psychological, i.e., appropriate detachment from the worldly temptations and a divine connection (attachment) with the Almighty while living in the human form. Such a human being is known as Jeevan-mukta (liberated during life).

“Sense enjoyments” are enjoyments through the five physical senses well beyond the physical needs of the body, for instance, addictions. “Material pleasures” are due to tendencies to dwell on concrete and monetary gains at the cost of mental and spiritual accomplishments, e.g., obsession about collecting money. These pleasures based on physical and material aspects are seen as obstruction in the path of development and enhancement of spirituality in the Hindu perspective. Therefore, those with physical and material focus lose out in the spiritual area and those with spiritual focus experience little interest in the physical and material aspects of life.

Heaven is conceptualized as the first place between this world and the ultimate blissful union with Brahman.⁷ It is a place for souls who are spiritual but still wish the pleasures more than ultimate freedom. Their wish is granted as reward for good karma. They go to heaven after death due to accumulation of good karma.⁸ They go to heaven after death due to good karma but return to earth when such good karma is exhausted, in a manner analogous to depleted funds in a bank account. Reborn in a new body and family, one must collect a new account of good and bad karma all over again.⁹

Brahma-loka is the second abode for the souls who no longer have a wish for sense enjoyments/material pleasures. They do not return to earth; instead they remain in Brahma-loka undergoing further spiritual enhancement needed to merit the divine merger with the Supreme Soul (Brahman). It is not possible for any soul to have no bad karma at all due to the natural human tendency for attachment and emotional dependence. The temptations of the senses are immense in earthly life; even an accomplished yogin (a soul at the stage of highly advanced purification) can at times succumb to them.¹⁰ The symbolic Jeevan-mukta view holds that one suffers during one’s life on earth for bad karma. This constitutes an answer to the question “Why do the good suffer.” This view does not accept the theory of reincarnation or physical rebirth.

The process of spiritual purification and enhancement is called yoga.¹¹ Yoga entails a clear understanding and diligent effort. Believing that he or she had accomplished complete mastery over all his or her senses and mind, the yogin may be involved in self-deception. This is a trap of overconfidence and a sign of “egoism,” the enemy of spirituality. A popular illustration is the story of the devout soul who had almost reached the divine merger point when, on his deathbed, he was caught unaware by the sight of a luscious berry on a tree branch, and experienced the long forgotten desire for the pleasure of its taste. It is noteworthy that this yogin was neither hungry nor thirsty nor in need of any nutrition, but he experienced a pure desire for the pleasure of its taste. The sage did not go to Brahma-loka, was reborn to enjoy the fruit, and his merger took place only then. The story suggests that one ends up getting one’s wish, until sufficient fulfillment of the sense occurs. One can be detached only after basic satisfaction of the physical needs. All needs must be satisfied and after that one must rise above undue attachment to substances not truly needed.

The sincere wish, genuine effort, and renunciation of physical and material temptations in a wholehearted manner, bring about eternal freedom.¹² Slacking, pretending, and trickery do not work with the all-pervading and all-knowing¹³ Brahman. Brahman is kind in the sense of rewarding quality effort but also is the pure principle of truth and justice, hence is uncompromising in terms of concessions for inappropriate attitudes and conduct.¹⁴ This is the “firm” discipline of a “well-wisher” rather than a harsh, punitive attitude.

Yoga expresses the concept of the union of the finite with the infinite or the union of the human being in his or her physical form with the formless God. The significant belief of yoga is revealed as the supreme secret in the thought that man is tomorrow’s God and God is today’s man. Further, yoga is simultaneously humanized and “divinized” because it creates a connection between human and divine aspects. The literal meaning of the word yoga is (to “yoke”) to unite the soul with God.

Any constructive action harmless to others and helpful to at least some people or some human cause can qualify as yoga. Therefore functioning in the appropriate role as a wife or parent is yoga. Popularly recognized types of yoga are work, knowledge, devotion, meditation, practice, renunciation, service to others, doing one’s duty or dharma, sharing wealth, and actions honoring and supporting “truth” and “justice.” Thus ethics are built into dharma and yoga.¹⁵

Of the previous yogas, four are most popular, namely, work or Karma-yoga, knowledge or Jnana-yoga, meditation or Dhyan-yoga, and devotion or Bhakti-yoga.¹⁶ All four condone the practice of charity and involve renunciation of the fruit of one’s actions.¹⁷

All types of yoga are different paths to Self-realization.¹⁸ Spiritual achievement through yoga is like trying to reach the mountain peak: travel from any direction, by any method, and, eventually, one arrives at the peak, as long as movement is upwards and forward. People can begin with a preferable type of yoga and later add on several others for greater benefits.¹⁹

Central to the yogas is the concept of the self. The self is not another term for the conscious ego, “self-image,” or “self-concept”; rather self refers to the atman in the jiva, which is perpetually connected with the universal Self (Brahman, the Absolute or the Supreme Soul).²⁰ The essence of the Self is already in every self or being in its pure, natural form.²¹ The usual worldly attachment makes it tarnished as silver is, with lack of use and impact of the environment. Removal of “tarnish” of attachment and ignorance shows the clean shiny metal of the self, the essence of Brahman in its true glorious form.

In each being, the self is separate from both body and mind. The Self is present in all life forms and in inert objects and matter. Inert matter is a latent, potential energy form of Brahman. This is supported by the scientific fact that matter merely changes form (is not destroyed), in the transformation or conservation of energy.²²

The term “Self-realization” expresses the awareness of the identification with Brahman and the understanding that the higher spiritual values and principles are inherently present in humans, i.e., they are there as potential waiting to be realized.²³ Another name for Self or Brahman is Sat-chitanandam. It translates as a combination of sat or good, chit or mind and anandam or joy.²⁴ The yogas connect directly with these three aspects in the form of Karma-yoga (yoga of work) for sat or good; Jnana-yoga (yoga of knowledge) and Dhyana-yoga (yoga of meditation) for chit or mind; and Bhakti-yoga (yoga of devotion) for anandam or joy of attachment with Brahman or the Almighty. The balance of all three is spirituality. Thus yoga constitutes the bridge between the Almighty and humans.

The concept of the abstract Self involves the notion of the formless Supreme Spirit.²⁵ It may be conceptualized as a set of principles of cosmic organizations that comprise Brahman, not one being in a specific form, such as a deity. These principles are in operation all the time, sometimes visible and sometimes not. They are not to be perceived by the senses but to be realized internally and experientially through peaceful inner-concentration (meditation).²⁶ This is the primary goal of meditation. The resulting fulfillment involves peace, bliss, and contentment. It appears as though removing attention from the “details” and “major parts” is a prerequisite to focusing on the “whole.” Rorschach’s perceptual test of inkblots is based, in part at least, on this principle. It is the balance of all three that is necessary.

Background of the Bhagavad Gita Message

The Bhagavad Gita is a portion of the Mahabharata. It enjoys a very special identity and existence as an independent volume of sacred scripture. Translations of the original Sanskrit version have been made in many languages all over the world attempting to clarify the vital message of a harmonious philosophy of life that benefits the individual and the society simultaneously. A brief account of the historical background of the Bhagavad Gita follows to clarify the context.

Prior to 800 B.C., India was not one united country. Instead there were many territories, each ruled by a king. The oldest son of a k...