The Emergence of A Discipline

Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology, Volume 1

Dante Cicchetti

• Publisher: Psychology Press
• Year: 2013
• eBook ISBN: 9781134753130
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Developmental Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Compiled from papers presented at the Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology, this is the first book of its kind devoted to disseminating theory and research in the field of psychopathology. Contributions to this text are unified by their incorporation of developmental principles into the study of various types of emotional disorders in children and adults. Also emphasized in this book is the importance of bridging the dichotomy between scientific research and the application of this knowledge to clinical populations. Designed as both a required and supplementary text for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses in developmental psychopathology, abnormal, clinical, and health psychology as well as neuroscience. Also insightful for psychiatric and pediatric residents, nurses, and social workers.

1	Developmental Psychopathology: Past, Present, and Future

Dante Cicchetti
University of Rochester

In October of 1987 the Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology was initiated. This volume is noteworthy in that it marks not only the inauguration of this annual symposium with its accompanying presentations, but also serves as a chronicle of the current state of theorizing and research in the discipline of developmental psychopathology. The impetus for organizing this meeting and the intention to ensure its occurrence on a yearly basis arose from recognition of the productivity and associated excitement generated by researchers in the field. A similar landmark event last took place in 1984, when a special issue of the journal Child Development was devoted exclusively to developmental psychopathology. At that time, I discussed the “coming of age” of the discipline (Cicchetti, 1984). With scholars such as Thomas Achenbach, Norman Garmezy, Marian Radke-Yarrow, Lee Robins, Michael Rutter, Alan Sroufe, and Edward Zigler providing guidance and direction, developmental psychopathology has indeed joined the ranks of other mature scientific disciplines. As such, it is critical that investigators have a forum in which to gather and discuss new developments and to question the overall direction of the field.

A danger inherent in the developmental course of a relatively new, exciting discipline is that its core identity may be lost in the onslaught of enthusiasm which it generates. That is, it is possible that the popular use of the term will not accurately reflect the original tenets of the discipline. It is therefore important to examine the key components which differentiate developmental psychopathology from other areas of scientific endeavor. To this end, an historical perspective is presented, followed by identification of definitional elements encompassed by developmental psychopathology.

In reviewing the writings of noted systematizers in psychology and psychiatry, the interrelation between the study of normal functioning and the study of psychopathology emerges (Cicchetti, in press-a). A consensus exists that a knowledge of normal development can inform the understanding of psychopathology, and that reciprocally, the exploration of atypical populations can shed light on normal functioning (Cicchetti, 1984; Rutter, 1986). This principle emerges clearly in the writings of Sigmund Freud (see, for example, 1927/1955a, 1937/1955b, 1940/1955c, 1940/1955d), but also is evident in the work of Anna Freud (1946, 1965, 1974, 1976), Kurt Goldstein (1939, 1940, 1943, 1948), David Rapaport (1951, 1960), and Heinz Werner (1948, 1957). Because these theorists viewed pathology as a deviation from normality, the study of pathology was seen as enhancing one’s knowledge of normal processes (Cicchetti, in press-b).

While these systematizers played an important role in the genesis of developmental psychopathology, the historical roots of this discipline extend far beyond psychology and psychiatry. In fact, the interdisciplinary nature of those involved in the field mirrors the origins of the discipline. For example, influence from work conducted in neurophysiology by Jackson (1884/1958) and Sherrington (1906), in embryology by Waddington (1957, 1966) and Weiss (1961, 1969), in physiological psychology by Teitelbaum (1971, 1977; Teitelbaum & Stellar, 1954), and in neurobiology by Jacobson (1978) and Rakic and Goldman-Rakic (1982) all can be seen in the writings of developmental psychopathologists. It was through these historical endeavors that the groundwork for the importance of differentiation, organization, and hierarchical integration, principles at the cornerstone of developmental psychopathology, was laid. For example, Herbert Spencer’s (1862/1900) “Developmental Hypothesis” or “Doctrine of Evolution” has had a predominant influence upon the social and scientific ideologies of the 19th and 20th centuries. Spencer conceived of the developmental process as one of an integration of successively higher stages that occurred in an invariant sequence. He likewise considered these stages to be hierarchical while coexisting in time. Because through the process of hierarchic integration an organisms’ early structures are not lost in development, the organism can maintain feelings of integrity and continuity in the face of change so rapid that it might otherwise create problems for the sense of internal continuity.

Although these brief illustrations highlight the long and diverse history that has contributed to the emergence of developmental psychopathology, it was not until the 1970s that developmental psychopathology was delineated as a separate field of inquiry. As such, it is a young discipline which has strived to incorporate and build upon a wealth of knowledge. For a more indepth historical perspective, the reader is referred to Rutter and Garmezy (1983) and Cicchetti (in press-a).

Moving beyond the historical origins of this discipline, it is necessary to clarify its content and boundaries. That is, what exactly is developmental psychopathology and how does it differ from other disciplines such as developmental and clinical psychology and psychiatry? To begin, developmental psychopathology is unique in its emphasis on the importance of recognizing the interplay between normal and abnormal development (Cicchetti, 1984; Rutter, 1984; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984). As such, a knowledge of normal development is considered to be critical to understanding abnormality and, similarly, examining deviant development is seen as a necessary enhancement of knowledge of normal functioning (Cicchetti, in press-b; Cicchetti & Toth, in press; Rutter, 1986; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984). In order to achieve this integration, developmental psychopathologists address the mechanisms and processes by which various developmental outcomes occur. This requires attention to developmental continuities and discontinuities across the lifespan rather than an emphasis on rates of psychopathology (Cicchetti & Schneider-Rosen, 1986; Rutter, 1988; Rutter & Garmezy, 1983; Zigler & Glick, 1986). In addition, the effect of experience on modifying or maintaining behavior is also central to the developmental psychopathology approach (Cicchetti & Schneider-Rosen, 1986; Gottlieb, 1976; Rutter, 1986). Thus, developmental psychopathology can be defined as “the study of the origins and course of individual patterns of behavioral maladaptation, whatever the age of onset, whatever the causes, whatever the transformations in behavioral manifestation, and however complex the course of the developmental pattern may be” (Sroufe & Rutter, 1984, p. 18). The interest of developmental psychopathologists in high risk nondisordered populations is, therefore, equal to their interest in disordered populations.

With this framework in mind, differences between the discipline of developmental psychopathology and seemingly related areas of endeavor begin to emerge. Rather than focusing exclusively on normal or abnormal functioning, developmental psychopathologists maintain a dual focus. In addition, a belief in the importance of employing a life-span perspective is central to this approach. Finally and perhaps most significantly, developmental psychopathologists are committed to bridging the dualisms that have separated scientific research from clinical application. Clearly, a central premise of this discipline calls for mutually beneficial growth through a working interface between research and clinical practice.

Due to the newness of the discipline of developmental psychopathology, a theme was not chosen for the current volume. Rather, I chose to solicit contributions from those individuals whose work reflects the goals of developmental psychopathology. Although a thematic focus therefore was not possible, all of the chapters are unified by their attention to the principles embodied by developmental psychopathology. In fact, despite the diversity of the contributions, several themes recur. Throughout the volume, authors attend to the importance of the interface between normal and atypical development. Regardless of the nature of the population under investigation, an incorporation of principles of normal development is evidenced. Perhaps most compelling in this regard is the attention directed toward the implications of the work reported for clinical populations. Issues related to continuity and discontinuity, as well as to the processes by which behavior is modified or maintained also are in evidence throughout the volume. Finally, a recognition of the need to conceptualize functioning within the context in which it occurs is manifested. To this end, many of the authors stress the importance of employing multidomain, multicontextual methods of assessment. As a whole, this volume reflects a departure from a simple main effects causal model of functioning and addresses the multiplicity of dynamic transactions which impact upon normal, as well as disordered behavior. In reading the chapters contained in this volume, the reader is advised to keep these unifying themes in mind, for it is through the maintenance of this perspective that the potential of developmental psychopathology can be realized.

The volume opens, most appropriately, in view of his guiding influence on the development of the discipline, with a contribution by Alan Sroufe. His chapter focuses on the assessment of psychopathology as deviation from normal patterns of development. According to Sroufe, it is this view that contains the major promise of developmental psychopathology. By recognizing prognostically significant developmental deviations before an individual manifests a psychiatric disorder, early identification and preventive efforts can be enhanced. In addition to its relevance for early identification, the developmental deviation approach also has the advantage of providing guidance regarding areas of functioning to examine and what constitutes atypical functioning (see also Rolf, 1985). Moreover, this approach contains clearly delimited outcome criteria.

Following his discussion of the developmental deviation approach, Sroufe addresses the continuity of adaptation, an issue central to the discipline of developmental psychopathology. The importance of examining the continuity of pathways and not expecting behavioral isomorphism is stressed. Sroufe cites longitudinal studies and presents data to support this view. The chapter culminates with a discussion pertaining to the fluidity of developmental pathways and emphasizes the importance of this approach to understanding the processes which operate in the development of psychopathology.

In the next chapter, Arnold Sameroff, a pioneer in the area of developmental psychopathology, discusses the requirements for a theory of developmental psychopathology. After critiquing nondevelopmental approaches, Sameroff presents a model of developmental regulation which is rooted in an elaboration of the role of environmental constraints on individual behavior. Specifically, Sameroff argues that the principles espoused by a medical model related to symptomatic and etiological continuity across the lifespan cannot be applied usefully to the study of psychopathology.

Based on data from the Rochester Longitudinal Study (Sameroff, Seifer, & Zax, 1982), Sameroff describes the importance of cumulative environmental risk, emphasizing that the characteristics of a child must be related to the environment’s ability to guide the development of the child toward social norms. In fact, Sameroff posits that a disordered social environment might convert biologically normal children into “caretaking casualties”. Sameroff describes the role of experience in determining behavior and stresses the dynamic relation between the individual and the internal and external context. Interestingly, the Rochester Longitudinal Study revealed continuities in development. It is the study of linkages over time and the relation to continuities and discontinuities which Sameroff views as the most defining aspect of developmental psychopathology.

Sameroff’s premise of the importance of experience in modifying biological predisposition is illustrated brilliantly and elaborated upon in Donald Tucker’s chapter. Tucker considers the implications of evidence on brain development for an organismic approach to developmental psychopathology. Accordingly, he suggests that the major issues of early social and emotional development provide a context for understanding brain maturation. This chapter is compelling in its ability to impart a multidomain perspective to the understanding of psychopathology.

After describing structural aspects of the nervous system and the relation between structure and function in the developing brain, Tucker provides illustrations through data on depression and schizophrenia. Tucker’s approach emphasizes the importance of early experience for the actualization of genetic potential. Importantly for purposes of continuity/discontinuity, Tucker states that the effects of early experience on neural maturation may not be reversible.

In a different but related vein, John Weisz addresses the importance of cross-cultural research for enhancing our understanding of psychopathology. Cross-cultural research is critical to incorporate into a comprehensive theory of developmental psychopathology as it enables us to assess contextual influences on the etiology, course, and identification of psychopathology. Weisz begins with a warning that in the absence of the incorporation of data from diverse areas of the world, developmental psychopathology risks the stigmatization of being known as a “monocultural science.” According to Weisz, we must delimit the extent to which psychological dysfunctions reflect development influences of childhood versus social-environmental factors. After discussing how cross-cultural research should be approached and presenting his findings, Weisz discusses the relevance of the data for a theory of developmental psychopathology. According to Weisz, similarities of problems despite cultural variation raise the possibility of the central role of developmental influences in the manifestation of psychopathology. However, despite these commonalities, identifying differences and exploring their genesis may improve our understanding of how social forces influence developmental psychopathology. Implications of culturally specific beliefs on problem identification and the provision of treatment also are discussed.

The next chapter is unique in its focus on a nondisordered population, but consistent with the tenets of developmental psychopathology in its attention to the relevance of the data for normal, as well as abnormal development. Megan Gunnar, Sarah Mangelsdorf, Roberta Kestenbaum, Sarah Lang, Mary Larson, and Debra Andreas maintain that knowledge of how an individual functions under stress is central to an understanding of both normal and atypical functioning. Consistent with the importance of multidomain assessments to developmental psychopathology, Gunnar and her colleagues state that an adequate understanding of stress responses requires an analysis of behavior and physiology. She and her colleagues review three areas relating behavioral, hormonal and relationship systems to our understanding of the developing child’s ability to manage stress and challenge: behavioral competence, relationship security, and the ontogeny of coping strategies. Several of their conclusions are of note. First, having reviewed the literature they conclude that behavioral competence is often associated with greater physiological stress-reactivity. They suggest that this is because competence involves more approach-oriented coping strategies that have as a cost bringing the individual into greater contact with distressing elements of situations. Furthermore, they suggest that when lack of competence is associated with greater stress reactivity, that this may be because less competent individuals tend to use avoidance coping strategies and when these strategies are not available or functional, intense physiological stress results. A second point made in this chapter concerns the linkages between attachment and physiological stress. These researchers point out that there are remarkably few studies with human infants of either the effects of the attachment figure’s presence or of attachment security on infant physiological stress responding. The data from animal studies, however, clearly indicate that the mother’s presence buffers the infant from physiological stress, albeit with not well-understood exceptions. The few studies with human infants also suggest that the security of attachment plays little role in the infant’s physiological stress reaction to separation; however, we do not know whether attachment quality mediates the buffering effect of the mother’s presence. Gunnar and her colleagues point to a number of areas needing additional study, including the linkages bet...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Halftitle
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Foreword
• Dedication
• 1. Developmental Psychopathology: Past, Present, and Future
• 2. Pathways to Adaptation and Maladaption: Psychopathology as Developmental Deviation
• 3. Models of Developmental Regulation: The Environtype
• 4. Neural and Psychological Maturation in a Social Context
• 5. Culture and the Development of Child Psychopathology: Lessons from Thailand
• 6. Stress and Coping in Early Development
• 7. Maternal Depression Effects on Infant Interaction and Attachment Behavior
• 8. The Application of Developmental Knowledge to a Clinical Problem: The Study of Childhood Autism
• 9. Schizophrenia: A Developmental Perspective
• 10. Age of Onset, Temporal Stability, and Eighteen-Month Course of First-Episode Psychosis
• 11. Resilience in Development: Implications of the Study of Successful Adaptation for Developmental Psychopathology
• Author Index
• Subject Index