Scaffolding

A Special Issue of the Journal of the Learning Sciences

Elizabeth A. Davis, Naomi Miyake

• Publisher: Psychology Press
• Year: 2018
• eBook ISBN: 9781135066765
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Cognitive Psychology & Cognition
• Index: Psychology

This special issue works toward refining the understanding of a construct that has had a name for nearly 30 years and has been used by educators of all stripes for centuries. The introduction lays the groundwork for discussing the issues addressed throughout. Each of the papers address different aspects of a similar problem: How can we conceptualize, design, and assess the effects of scaffolding when it is implemented in a complex classroom system? The first article addresses a core problem in conceptualizing scaffolding: What are the specific goals of scaffolding provided in software tools? The next paper extends this consideration of how scaffolding mechanisms can complement each other and explores issues having to do with the complex settings in which scaffolding is used. A framework which synthesizes theoretical and design work done in cognitive science, psychology, educational technology, science education, and the learning sciences over the last three decades is the topic of the third paper. The final article presents a new method for analyzing the effects of scaffolding. This special issues closes with commentary covering different components of a definition of scaffolding, including the "what, why, and how" of scaffolding.

Scaffolding Complex Learning: The Mechanisms of Structuring and Problematizing Student Work

Brian J. Reiser
School of Education and Social Policy
Northwestern University

There has been much interest in using software tools to scaffold learners in complex tasks, that is, to provide supports that enable students to deal with more complex content and skill demands than they could otherwise handle. Many different approaches to scaffolding techniques have been presented in a broad range of software tools. I argue that two complementary mechanisms can explain how a diversity of scaffolding approaches in software act to support learners. Software tools can help structure the learning task, guiding learners through key components and supporting their planning and performance. In addition, tools can shape students' performance and understanding of the task in terms of key disciplinary content and strategies and thus problematize this important content. Although making the task more difficult in the short term, by forcing learners to engage with this complexity, such scaffolded tools make this work more productive opportunities for learning. I present arguments for these mechanisms in terms of the obstacles learners face, and I present several brief examples to illustrate their use in design guidelines. Finally, I examine how the mechanisms of structuring and problematizing are sometimes complementary and sometimes in tension in design, discuss design tradeoffs in developing scaffolded investigation tools for learners, and consider the reliance of scaffolding on a classroom system of supports.

There is much interest in education reform in using technology to support learners. One aspect of the argument for technology has been that software can be used to help learners succeed in more complex tasks than they could otherwise master (Davis & Linn, 2000; Edelson, Gordin, & Pea, 1999; Guzdial, 1994; Quintana, Eng, Carra, Wu, & Soloway, 1999; Reiser et al., 2001). Researchers have invoked the notion of scaffolding, a construct originally crafted to characterize how more experienced peers or adults can assist learners. As defined and used in early research, scaffolding is said to occur when a more knowledgeable person helps a learner succeed in tasks that would be otherwise beyond their reach (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). In the last two decades of learning sciences research, scaffolding has become increasingly prominent. Scaffolding is a key strategy in cognitive apprenticeship, in which students can learn by taking increasing responsibility and ownership for their role in complex problem solving with the structure and guidance of more knowledgeable mentors or teachers (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989).

Many different approaches to scaffolding have emerged from the design research on interactive learning environments, and a variety of design guidelines or principles have been proposed (Edelson et al., 1999; Guzdial, 1994; Kolodner, Owensby, & Guzdial, 2004; Linn, 2000; Reiser et al., 2001). To engage in principled development and empirical study of design guidelines requires greater clarity concerning what is meant when one says that a tool has scaffolded learners, and requires a model of how the tool has benefited learners. In particular, it is important to characterize the mechanisms by which a software tool can provide scaffolding for learners. Developing a common system of design guidelines for scaffolded software requires such a model of mechanisms that explain why a tool reflecting these guidelines would benefit learners.

In this article, I present an analysis of two general mechanisms to characterize how scaffolded tools can support learning. I describe how these dual mechanisms can address the challenges learners face by structuring tasks to make them more tractable and to shape tasks for learners in ways that makes their problem solving more productive. I develop the argument for these mechanisms by first considering how tools affect the experience of tasks for learners. Then I review some of the critical challenges learners face in complex domains such as science and mathematics learning. In describing each mechanism, I present brief examples of software environments to illustrate the mechanisms in practice. Finally, I consider how the mechanisms can interact and discuss issues of the embedding of tools in classroom contexts.

Traditional Approaches to Scaffolding

To consider how software tools can scaffold learners, I first review the source of the scaffolding metaphor. The term scaffolding has traditionally been used to refer to the process by which a teacher or more knowledgeable peer assists a learner, altering the learning task so the learner can solve problems or accomplish tasks that would otherwise be out of reach (Collins et al., 1989; Wood et al., 1976). The central component of this definition is that another person intervenes at times appropriate for that learner in that context, and what the learner can accomplish increases with these interventions. For example, a teacher may help a child in a board game by reminding him or her of the rules or by suggesting strategic steps if the child is stuck. The conception is associated with Vygotsky's (1978) notion of the zone of proximal development, which characterizes the region of tasks between what the learner could accomplish alone and what he or she could accomplish (and master) with assistance (Rogoff, 1990).

The idea of scaffolding is now in increasing use in educational design. In these contexts, the intention is that the support not only assists learners in accomplishing tasks but also enables them to learn from the experience. The use of the notion of scaffolding has not always been explicitly limited to learning settings. For example, one might consider an adult providing support to a child for some task (such as observing an animal at the zoo) in which there is no intention that the child learns to perform the task in the future more effectively. For educational settings, it is important to stress the dual aspects of both (a) accomplishing the task and (b) learning from one's efforts, that is, improving one's performance on the future tasks in the process. If learners are assisted in the task but are not able to understand or take advantage of the experience, the assistance will have been local to that instance of scaffolding but will not have provided support for learning. Thus, scaffolding entails a delicate negotiation between providing support and continuing to engage learners actively in the process (Hogan, Nastasi, & Pressley, 1999; Merrill, Reiser, Merrill, & Landes, 1995). Lepper, Woolverton, Mumme, and Gurtner (1993) described this as maintaining an "optimum" level of challenge for learners. I return to the need for balancing assistance with ensuring the work on the task is productive in later discussions of the two scaffolding mechanisms.

Recent design research on interactive learning environments has adapted the notion of scaffolding (Davis & Linn, 2000; Edelson et al., 1999; Guzdial, 1994; Quintana et al., 1999; Reiser et al., 2001). This vision of scaffolding refers to ways the software tool itself can support learners rather than only teachers or peers. As applied to software, scaffolding refers to cases in which the tool changes the task in some way so that learners can accomplish tasks that would otherwise be out of their reach. Software scaffolding provides some aspect of support that helps make the learning more tractable for learners. For example, the software might provide prompts to encourage or remind students what steps to take (Davis & Linn, 2000), graphical organizers or other notations to help students plan and organize their problem solving (Quintana et al., 1999), or representations that help learners track what steps they have taken (Collins & Brown, 1988; Koedinger & Anderson, 1993). In all these cases, the software provides additional assistance beyond what a simpler, more basic tool would have provided to allow learners to accomplish more ambitious tasks. Sherin, Reiser, and Edelson (this issue) argue that software scaffolding should be characterized in terms of the differences the scaffolding creates in comparison to some presumably more difficult reference version of the task.

This work on scaffolded software tools has been very encouraging, and scaffolding promises to be an important benefit in integrating technological tools into classrooms. However, there has been a wide range of approaches to designing software scaffolds and many kinds of design principles. Integrating different scaffolding approaches into a common framework requires an analysis of how scaffolding can occur in the interactions between learners and software tools. How can researchers characterize the mechanisms by which software scaffolding assists learners?

Although there have been many different design principles proposed, I argue that underlying these principles are some common assumptions about how to make more productive learning experiences for students. The focus of this article is to consider design arguments and principles that have been proposed for software scaffolding and to characterize the common mechanisms by which these strategies achieve benefits for learners. Such an analysis of mechanisms is needed to clarify and evaluate what types of scaffolding are effective. In this work, I build on the framework developed by Quintana et al. (this issue). This framework consists of a set of design guidelines and specific design strategies that synthesize design ideas across a range of software tools and grounds these strategies in the types of obstacles learners need to overcome. The scaffolding mechanisms proposed here are meant to explain why these design guidelines work to support learners in mastering complex tasks.

To construct this argument, I focus on scaffolding in the discipline of science. Much of the work on scaffolding tools has taken place in this domain, and there is a rich literature on the obstacles learners face. Furthermore, tools to access and interpret data are a central part of the practices of scientific i nvestigation, so this domain is a productive context in which to explore the design of scaffolded tools.

Needs of Learners

A principled analysis of the manners in which tools can influence learning must begin with an analysis of the needs of learners and the ways that shaping the tool can affect the ability of learners to overcome these challenges. In this section, I briefly consider the challenges of learners in the discipline of science to delineate the opportunities for a software tool to help learners overcome these challenges.

Instructional approaches in science emphasize learning by engaging in knowledge construction practices. In the case of science, this entails learning science through investigation and argumentation (Olson & Loucks-Horsley, 2000). In project-based science, students learn general principles in the context of investigating particular problem scenarios such as learning introductory chemistry by analyzing the quality of air in the local community (Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Edelson, 2001; Hmelo, Holton, & Kolodner, 2000). In addition to constructing conceptual understanding, students need to acquire new disciplinary strategies to guide reasoning in the domain (Schauble, Glaser, Raghavan, & Reiner, 1991; Tabak, this issue).

These approaches to learning through inquiry, although providing the potential to connect knowledge more effectively to real-world contexts, also pose particular challenges for learners. Quintana et al. (this issue) consider the challenges learners face and organize them around three constituent processes involved in learning through scientific investigation—sense making, process management, and articulation and reflection. Each type of process is challenging for learners.

Sense making entails c...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Contents
• Copyright
• GUEST EDITORS' INTRODUCTION
• ARTICLES
• COMMENTARY
• ERRATUM