Cognitive and Intellectual Disabilities

Historical Perspectives, Current Practices, and Future Directions

Stephen B. Richards, Michael P. Brady, Ronald L. Taylor

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• eBook ISBN: 9781135049263
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Pedagogía
• Subtopic: Gestión comportamental

Cognitive and Intellectual Disabilities: Historical Perspectives, Current Practices, and Future Directions provides thorough coverage of the causes and characteristics of cognitive and intellectual disabilities (formerly known as mental retardation) as well as detailed discussions of the validated instructional approaches in the field today. Features include:

• A companion website that offers students and instructors learning objectives, additional activities, discussion outlines, and practice tests for each chapter of the book
• An up-to-date volume that reflects the terminology and criteria of the DSM-V and is aligned with the current CEC standards
• Teaching Applications: presents the strongest coverage available in any introductory text on instructional issues and applications for teaching students with cognitive and intellectual disabilities
• A unique chapter on "Future Issues" that explores the philosophical, social, legal, medical, educational, and personal issues that professionals and people with cognitive and intellectual disabilities face

This comprehensive and current introductory textbook is ideally suited for introductory or methods courses related to cognitive and intellectual disabilities.

Part One

Introduction to CIDs

1

HISTORICAL CONCEPTS AND PERSPECTIVES¹

Key Points

AN EARLY DARK HISTORY—Although ancient Egypt was tolerant of individuals with cognitive/intellectual disabilities (CIDs),² ancient Rome and Greece often supported infanticide. Attitudes were later affected by religion and medical practices.

A SHIFT TO CARE—The first half of the 19th century brought a positive approach to the treatment of individuals with CIDs. Although institutions were popular, efforts of individuals such as Itard, and his student Seguin, resulted in attempts at education.

AN AGE OF CONFLICT—The mid- to late 19th century and beginning 20th century again resulted in negative stereotypes. Custodial institutions and the eugenics movement were popular.

HUMANIZATION OF PEOPLE WITH CIDs—The mid- to late 20th century saw many advances in medicine and education. Deinstitutionalization and normalization were encouraged, laws were passed, and court cases supported the rights of individuals with CIDs.

CURRENT PERSPECTIVES—Current and future areas that have been, and will be, addressed include legal issues, medical advances, educational considerations, and the use of terminology.

The field of CIDs has had a long, and at times, tumultuous history. The treatment of individuals with CIDs by others has progressed from kindness, to barbarism, to neglect, to enlightenment, to care, and eventually to education. More recently, the recognition and encouragement of these individuals to become self-advocates and active participants in deciding their goals and futures have been emphasized. The terms used to describe individuals with CIDs have shown a similar evolution. Idiot, imbecile, moron, and feeble-minded, although quite offensive in today’s society, were terms used by scholars of the various time periods. Later terms such as mental defective and mental deficiency led the way to the use of the term mental retardation. The use of this term was eventually challenged and has been replaced by the term cognitive/intellectual disability. The term intellectual/developmental disability is also used by many. Interestingly, the term mental retardation is still used in the Individuals with Disability Education Act of 2004 (IDEA 04) although individual states were allowed to use different terms (e.g., cognitive disability, cognitive delay, intellectual disability). However, in 2010, President Obama signed Rosa’s law, which officially changed the term mental retardation to intellectual disability so future legislation will use the latter term. Throughout the text, CID(s) will be used in reference to studies in which the term mental retardation was used to characterize the participant. In studies in which the terminology is less clear, the original descriptive terms will be used.

AN EARLY DARK HISTORY

The history of CIDs has been chronicled by a number of researchers for half a century (e.g., Kanner, 1964; Winzer, 1993; Scheerenberger, 1983; Trent, 1994), although the early history is not well documented and is left to many sources that have resulted in a certain degree of speculation (see Research Box 1.1). The first actual description of CIDs was probably in Thebes (in Egypt) as early as 1500 B.C. (Grossman, 1983) and is somewhat ambiguous. This discovery came about in 1862 when two medical papyri were discovered in a tomb. These documents indicated some reference to individuals with CIDs, although translation problems caused some uncertainty in their message. Another example of speculation occurring in history regards the role of St. Nicholas Thaumaturgos, who was the Bishop of Myra (an area that would now be in southern Turkey) in the fourth century A.D. He has been described as both the protector and the saint of individuals with CIDs (although that term certainly wasn’t used at that date). St. Nicholas, however, has also been regarded as the patron saint of all children, of sailors, and actually of pawnbrokers (Kanner, 1964). St. Nicholas is best known today as the prototype for Santa Claus.

Ancient Egypt

Scheerenberger (1983) suggested that CID has undoubtedly been apparent since the dawn of human history. He argued that in any given society there have been individuals who are more capable and less capable than average. In ancient history, different societies dealt with individuals with CIDs differently. For example, ancient Egyptians valued their children and through religion and medicine, attempts were made to “cure” a variety of maladies. Priests would encourage the use of spiritual healing, and the use of amulets and incantations was widespread. Medicine was also becoming more popular. One of the previously mentioned papyri found in Thebes “represents a collection of ancient recipes for the physician covering innumerable human ailments” (Scheerenberger, 1983; p. 10). Conversely, in later years, during the rise and fall of the Greek and Roman civilizations, infanticide (killing an infant) became widespread.

1.1 RESEARCH THAT MADE A DIFFERENCE

Scheerenberger, R. (1983). A history of mental retardation. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Although there have been many histories of people with cognitive and intellectual disabilities compiled, Scheerenberger perhaps researched and produced the most comprehensive work on this topic. His book consists of two major parts. The first looks at the European influences beginning in prehistoric times and continuing until the 20th century. The other part focuses on the history of CIDs in the United States, beginning in the early 1600s, in what he calls the formative years that continued until the mid-1800s. He then has a chapter on Strife, Reconstruction, and the Gilded Age (Chapter 5), the Progressive Era (Chapter 6), Normalcy, Depression, and the New Deal (Chapter 7), and Conflict and Change (Chapter 8). The last chapter is an epilogue that highlighted the current status of CIDs in the early 1980s.

Greek and Roman Civilizations

In Greece, children were not considered property of the parents but rather of the commonwealth (Winzer, 1993). For example, in Sparta newborn babies would be brought before a board of elders to determine their physical capability. If a child was considered to have a disability (including a CID), the child would be thrown into the river Eurotes or abandoned in the wilderness. Other forms of infanticide were also used.

On the positive side, medicine continued to make advances that led to treatment rather than torture of individuals with disabilities. Hippocrates championed the concept of humane treatment for all individuals. Unfortunately, Hippocrates and physicians for many future centuries were concerned with physical problems and pain and left problems of the mind and soul to philosophers (Scheerenberger, 1983). Both Plato and Aristotle voiced very negative attitudes about individuals with disabilities.

The era of the Roman civilization lasted from 800 B.C. until 476 A.D. Ancient Romans held similar beliefs to the Greeks about infants with disabilities. The major difference between Rome and Greece was that in Rome the child was considered a property of the parents; therefore it was their decision, particularly the father’s, whether or not to reject the child at birth (Winzer, 1993). In effect, the child was the property of the father who could choose the future for the child. Because of the strong family bonds, high birth rates, and the self-sustaining nature of the family, many children with CIDs (particularly those without severe CIDs) were spared. These individuals would assist in menial tasks and manual labor. By the first century, however, Rome had become an empire and attitudes and needs changed. At this time, infanticide became widespread and continued until the fourth century, when Christianity began having a more humanitarian influence (Scheerenberger, 1983).

The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages, considered the period between the fall of Rome and the beginning of the Renaissance, was a time of religion, superstition, and fear. There were also numerous plagues and wars that affected the expected life span. Boys were considered men at age 16 and men at 25 were considered middle aged (Scheerenberger, 1983). Certain medical advances were made during the Middle Ages, however. Perhaps the most notable physician during this period was Avicenna. Avicenna’s writing, which drew heavily from Hippocrates, actually described proposed treatments for conditions related to CIDs such as meningitis and hydrocephalus.

Renaissance and Reformation

During the Renaissance (starting in the 1300s) and the Reformation (which began in the 1500s), several physicians had an impact on the field of CIDs. One was Paracelsus, a Swiss physician who lived from 1493 to 1541. He was perhaps the first who distinguished between CIDs and mental illness. Two statements attributed to him are “Many are those who are ill who are not thought to be mentally sick. For as fools (simpletons, feeble-minded) are of many kinds, so also ar...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• Part One INTRODUCTION TO CIDs
• Part Two CAUSES OF CIDs
• Part Three CHARACTERISTICS OF CIDs
• Part Four INSTRUCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Part Five THE FUTURE OF CIDs
• References
• Index