Part I
Free to Be You and Me? Maybe Not
Introduction
Samuel Johnson once said that âall theory is against the freedom of the will; all experience is for it.â Do you agree with that?
For the most part, yes. Philosophers and scientists have mounted strong theoretical arguments against free will for thousands of years.
And for thousands of years people have remained unconvinced
Right, because we feel free. We feel responsible.
That may be true, but it also feels like the earth is flat and that weâre at the center of the solar system. In almost every other field we allow logic and science to trump experienceâwhy not here?
Some people worry about the ethical implications of denying free will and moral responsibility. They think it would drain our lives of meaning and purpose, and maybe lead to a world where âeverything is permittedâ and no one is held accountable. So if free will is an illusion, maybe itâs one weâre better off embracing.
Is that what the authors you interviewed believe?
Not at all. In Chapter 1, the philosopher Galen Strawson argues that we cannot freely create our characters, and therefore that we are not ultimately responsible for our behavior. But he still thinks that we can deny free will and lead moral and fulfilling lives.
You used to defend a similar view.
Thatâs true, Strawson was a huge inspiration for my early work. I still agree with him that we canât spin our characters and personality out of thin air. But now I side more with his fatherâthe great philosopher P. F. Strawsonâwho argued that blame and responsibility can be grounded in our emotional responses. We talk a bit about his view in the interview.
You also interviewed Philip Zimbardo. Isnât there a movie about him?
Yes, itâs called The Stanford Prison Experiment and itâs a fictionalized retelling of his famous 1971 experiment. Billy Crudup plays Zimbardo.
The guy who played âDr. Manhattanâ in Watchmen?
Thatâs him! And in Chapter 2, the real Philip Zimbardo discusses that study and several others that show how situational factorsâour social and physical environmentâcan exert tremendous influence over our behavior. We discuss a whole tradition in social psychology that reveals our characters to be less stable than we think. According to Zimbardo, having a better understanding of the causes of our behavior can lead to a more just and effective approach to education, foreign policy, and criminal justice.
1
Galen Strawson
You Cannot Make Yourself the Way You Are
âYou sound to me as though you donât believe in free will,â said Billy Pilgrim.
âIf I hadnât spent so much time studying Earthlings,â said the Tralfamadorian, âI wouldnât have any idea what was meant by âfree will.â Iâve visited thirty-one inhabited planets in the universe, and I have studied reports on one hundred more. Only on Earth is there any talk of free will.â
âKurt Vonnegut, Slaughterhouse-Five
Imagine for a moment that it was not Timothy McVeigh who destroyed the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, but a mouse. Suppose this mouse got into the wiring of the electrical system, tangled the circuits, and caused a big fire, killing all those inside. Now think of the victimsâ families. There would, of course, still be enormous grief and suffering, but there would be one significant difference: there would be no resentment, no consuming anger, no hatred, no need to see the perpetrator punished (even if the mouse somehow got out of the building) in order to experience âclosure.â Why the difference? Because McVeigh, we think, committed this terrible act of his own free will. He chose to do it, and he could have chosen not to. McVeigh, then, is morally responsible for the death of the victims in a way that the mouse would not be. And our sense of justice demands that he pay for this crime.
Humans have an undeniable tendency to see themselves as free and morally responsible beings. But thereâs a problem. We also believeâmost of us, anyhowâthat our environment and our heredity entirely shape our characters. (What else could?) But we arenât responsible for our environment, and we arenât responsible for our heredity. So, by extension, we arenât responsible for our characters. But then how can we be responsible for acts that arise from our characters?
This question has a simple but extremely unpopular answer: we arenât. We are not and cannot be ultimately responsible for our behavior. According to this argument, while it may be of great pragmatic value to hold people responsible for their actions, and to employ systems of reward and punishment, no one is really deserving of blame or praise for anything. This answer has been around for more than two thousand years; it is backed by solid arguments with premises that are consistent with how most of us view the world. Yet few today give this position the serious consideration it deserves. The view that free will is a fiction is called counterintuitive, absurd, pessimistic, pernicious, and, most commonly, unacceptable, even by those who recognize the force of the arguments behind it. Philosophers who reject God, an immaterial soul, and even absolute morality, cannot bring themselves to do the same for the dubious concept of free willânot in their day-to-day lives, nor even in books, articles, and extraordinarily complex theories.
There are a few exceptions, however, and one of them is Galen Strawson, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Texas, Austin. Strawson is one of the most respected theorists in the free-will industry and, at the same time, a bit of an outsider. Two main philosophical camps engage in a technical and often bitter dispute over whether free will is compatible with the truth of determinism (the theory that the future is fixed, because every event has a cause, and the causes stretch back until the beginning of the universe). But if there is one thing that both sides agree on, itâs that we do have free will and that we are morally responsible. Strawson, with a simple, powerful argument that we will discuss below, bets the other way.
Strawsonâs was not always such a minority view. Enlightenment philosophers like Spinoza, Diderot, Voltaire, and dâHolbach challenged ordinary conceptions of freedom, doubted whether we could be morally responsible, and looked to ground theories of blame and punishment in other ways. Strawson is a descendant of these philosophers, but still incorporates the British analytic tradition into his work. His views are clear and honest, and there are no cop-outsâquite unusual in a literature mired in obscure terminology and wishful thinking. And his essays are always deeply connected to everyday experience. One of the main issues Strawson addresses is why we so instinctively and stubbornly see ourselves as free and responsible. What is it about human experience that makes it difficult, maybe impossible, to believe something that we can easily demonstrate as true?
Galen Strawson is also the son of perhaps the most respected analytic philosopher of the past century, the great metaphysician and philosopher of language, P. F. Strawson.1 Though not primarily concerned with the topic of free will, P. F. Strawson has written one of the classic papers of the genre, an essay called âFreedom and Resentment.â Galen (not from oedipal motives, he assures us) is one of its most effective critics.
March 2003
1 The Buck StopsâWhere?
TAMLER SOMMERS: You start out your book Freedom and Belief by saying that there is no such thing as free will. What exactly do you mean by âfree willâ?
GALEN STRAWSON: I mean what nearly everyone means. Almost all human beings believe that they are free to choose what to do in such a way that they can be truly, genuinely responsible for their actions in the strongest possible senseâresponsible period, responsible without any qualification, responsible sans phrase, responsible tout court, absolutely, radically, buck-stoppingly responsible; ultimately responsible, in a wordâand so ultimately morally responsible when moral matters are at issue. Free will is the thing you have to have if youâre going to be responsible in this all-or-nothing way. Thatâs what I mean by free will. Thatâs what I think we havenât got and canât have.
I like philosophersâI love what they do; I love what I doâbut they have made a truly unbelievable hash of all this. Theyâve tried to make the phrase âfree willâ mean all sorts of different things, and each of them has told us that what it really means is what he or she has decided it should mean. But they havenât made the slightest impact on what it really means, or on our old, deep conviction that free will is something we have.
TS: Thatâs true. Biologists, cognitive scientists, neurologistsâthey all seem to have an easier time, at least considering the possibility that thereâs no free will. But philosophers defend the concept against all odds, at the risk of terrible inconsistency with the rest of their views about the world. If itâs a fact that thereâs no free will, why do philosophers have such a hard time accepting it?
GS: Thereâs a Very Large Question here, as Winnie the Pooh would say. Thereâs a question about the pathology of philosophy, or more generally about the weird psychological mechanisms that underwrite commitment to treasured beliefsâreligious, theoretical, or whateverâin the face of overwhelming contrary evidence. But to be honest, I canât really accept it myself, and not because Iâm a philosopher. As a philosopher I think the impossibility of free will and ultimate moral responsibility can be proved with complete certainty. Itâs just that I canât really live with this fact from day to day. Can you, really? As for the scientists, they may accept it in their white coats, but Iâm sure theyâre just like the rest of us when theyâre out in the worldâconvinced of the reality of radical free will.
TS: Well, letâs move on to the argument then. Thereâs a famous saying of Schopenhauerâs that goes like this: âA man can surely do what he wants to do. But he cannot determine what he wants.â Is this idea at the core of your argument against moral responsibility?
GS: Yesâand itâs an old thought. Itâs in Hobbes somewhere, and itâs in Book Two of Lockeâs Essay Concerning Human Understanding, and I bet some ancient Greek said it, since they said almost everything.
Actually, though, thereâs a way in which itâs not quite true. If you want to acquire some want or preference you havenât got, you can sometimes do so. You can cultivate it. Perhaps youâre lazy and unfit and you want to acquire a love of exercise. Well, you can force yourself to do it every day and hope you come to like it. And you just might; you might even get addicted. Maybe you can do the same if you dislike olives.
TS: But then where did that desire come fromâthe desire to acquire the love of exercise ⌠or olives?
GS: Rightânow the deeper point cuts in. For suppose you do want to acquire a want you havenât got. The question is, where did the first wantâthe want for a wantâcome from? It seems it was just there, just a given, not something you chose or engineered. It was just there, like most of your preferences in food, music, footwear, sex, interior lighting, and so on.
I suppose itâs possible that you might have acquired the first want, thatâs the want for a want, because you wanted to! Itâs theoretically possible that you had a want to have a want to have a want. But this is very hard to imagine, and the question just rearises: Where did that want come from? You certainly canât go on like this forever. At some point your wants must be just given. They will be products of your genetic inheritance and upbringing, in which you had no say. In other words, thereâs a fundamental sense in which you did not and cannot make yourself the way you are. And this, as you say, is the key step in the basic argument against ultimate moral responsibility, which goes like this:
- You do what you doâin the circumstances in which you find yourselfâbecause of the way you are;
- so if youâre going to be ultimately responsible for what you do, youâre going to have to be ultimately responsible for the way you areâat least in certain mental respects;
- but you canât be ultimately responsible for the way you are (for the reasons just given);
- so you canât be ultimately responsible for what you do.
TS: I suppose itâs the third step that people have the most trouble accepting.
GS: Yes, although the step seems fairly clear when you look at it the right way. Sometimes people explain why (3) is true by saying that you canât be causa suiâyou canât be the cause of yourself, you canât be truly or ultimately self-made in any way. As Nietzsche puts it, in his usual, tactful way:
The causa sui is the best self-contradiction that has been conceived so far; it is a sort of rape and perversion of logic. But the extravagant pride of man has managed to entangle itself profoundly and frightfully with just this nonsense. The desire for âfreedom of the willâ in the superlative metaphysical sense, which still holds sway, unfortunately, in the minds of the half-educated; the desire to bear the entire and ultimate responsibility for oneâs actions oneself, and to absolve God, the world, ancestors, chance, and society involves nothing less than to be precisely this causa sui and, with more than Baron MĂźnchhausenâs audacity, to pull oneself up into existence by the hair, out of the swamps of nothingness.
Thereâs lots more to say about this basic argument, and there are lots of ways in which people have tried to get around the conclusion. But none of them work.
2 Viewing Hitler Like the Lisbon Earthquake
TS: I notice that the argument makes no mention of the theory of determinism. But historically the debate over freedom and responsibility has revolved around the truth of determinism, and the question of whether free will and moral responsibility are compatible with it.
GS: Yes, many people think that determinismâthe view that the history of the universe is fixed, the view that everything that happens is strictly necessitated by what has already gone before, in such a way that nothing can ever happen otherwise than it doesâis the real threat to free will, to ultimate moral responsibility. But the basic argument against ultimate moral responsibility works whether determinism is true or false. Itâs a completely a priori argument, as philosophers like to say. That means that you can see that it is true just lying on your couch. You donât have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way things are in the physical world. You donât have to do any science. And actually, current science isnât going to help. Ultimate moral responsibility is also ruled out by the theory of relativity. Einstein himself, in a piece written as a homage to the Indian mystical poet Rabindranath Tagore, said that âa Being, endowed with higher insight and more perfect intelligence, watching man and his doings, [would] smile about manâs illusion that he was acting according to his own free will.â
TS: And the illusion that he and others were morally responsible for their actions?
GS: Yes, but I just want to stress the word âultimateâ before âmoral responsibility.â Because thereâs a clearly weaker, everyday sense of âmorally responsibleâ in which you and I and millions of other people are thoroughly morally responsible people.
TS: I suppose your lazy unfit man who acquires a love for exercise is responsible for his choice in this weaker everyday sense. He made the choice, and he acted on it. On the other hand, it seems that in order for this man to be deserving of praise for his decision, he would have to be morally resp...