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INTRODUCTION
Reinventing the sociology of tourism
Yiorgos Apostolopoulos
THE MAGNITUDE OF TOURISM
Tourism, the 'largest peacetime movement of people' (Greenwood 1972), presents itself as a challenging sociocultural phenomenon. Since the Second World War, the growth of the tourism industry and its promotion by international financial organĀ izations as an agent of quick economic development and change have been unĀ precedented. Is tourism 'blessing or blight', 'trick or treat', 'boom or doom', 'panacea or a new slave trade', 'mirage or strategy for the future' (Lanfant and Graburn 1992)? Is tourism a passport to the socioeconomic development of developing nations (de Kadt 1979)? Is tourism the means for resolving all the developmental problems of an ill-planned economy or is it a well-planned and organized economy that makes tourism a profitable enterprise (Apostolopoulos 1996)? Do the development and implementation oand investment in, tourism have trickle-down effects for the lower strata and the disadvantaged parts of host societies? Is tourism another form of imperialism or neocolonialism, perpetuating inequalities in the capitalist world system, accelerating the ecological degradation of the planet, and destroying the most fragile and marginal cultures (van den Berghe 1992)? Does dependence on tourism lead to a social, economic, political, and cultural dependency (ApostolopouĀ los 1995b; Britton 1982)? Are tourists 'barbarians' and 'suntanned destroyers of culĀ ture' who seek only 'sun, sea, sand, and sex' (Crick 1989; Turner and Ash 1976)? Who is the tourist; are there different types of tourists who adopt different roles seeking different optimal experiences (Cohen 1979b; Leivadi and Apostolopoulos 1996; Ylannakis et al. 1991)? Can tourism be understood without viewing it as a 'megasystem' that generates and receives simultaneously in the context of interĀ dependent structures and forces Jafari 1989)? Or, can contemporary tourism be comprehensively studied without stressing the transformation of the industry to a transnational industry having established ascendancy in the developing world through the internationalization of capital, international trade, and international politicoĀ military systems (Apostolopoulos 1995b; Dunning 1989; Enloe 1990; Vandermerwe and Chadwick 1989)? Is the emergence and implementation of 'alternative' or 'appropriate' forms of tourism (Cohen 1989; Smith and Earlington 1992) the only saviour of host societies from the adverse consequences of mass tourism influx?
The international tourism industry- the largest industry in the world - holds a very influential position in the world economy and belongs to those economic secĀ tors offering realistic potential for long-term growth, especially with the immense worldwide expansion of the service sector (Faketek:uti 1987; Giarini 1987; Richter 1987). In 1994, international tourism produced approximately $3.5 trillion in gross output (6.1 per cent of global GDP) and employed close to 130 million people, 6.8 per cent of workers worldwide (Waters 1995; World Travel & Tourism Council 1995). For the same year, the tourism industry accounted for 12.3 per cent of conĀ sumer expense, absorbed 75 per cent of the total capital investment, and payed almost 6 per cent of total tax payments (World Travel & Tourism Council1995). The multiplier effects of the industry are even more impressive: the industry fuels an economic chain reaction that begins with purchases from other industries and exĀ tends to the spending of profits, dividends, and employee compensations. Are all these benefits evenly distributed among the populations of host countries or the difĀ ferent parts of the world? Does this tourist influx contribute to an actual developĀ ment involving not only changes of aggregate economic indicators but also changes in the 'reorganization and reorientation of entire economic and social systems' (Todaro 1989)?
As with several aspects of modern life, the development and expansion of the tourism industry has brought both 'blessings' and 'curses' to the socioeconomic and sociocultural spheres. In the socioeconomic sphere, tourism has dramatically affected 'foreign exchange, income, employment, prices, the distribution of beneĀ fits, ownership and control, development, and government revenue' (ApostoloĀ poulos 1993; Cohen 1984), while in the sociocultural sphere, tourism has affected 'community involvement in wider frameworks, the nature of interpersonal relaĀ tions, the bases of social organization, the rhythm of social life, migration, the division of labor, stratification, the distribution of power, deviance, and customs and the arts' (Apostolopoulos 1993; Cohen 1984). In fact, no other contemporary industry has had such a crucial and far-reaching impact on so many facets of society.
Tourism1 'the study of man away from his usual habitat, of the touristic apparatus and networks, and of the ordinary (home) and (the) nonordinary (touristic) worlds and their dialectic relationship' Qafari 1987), can only be understood if studied holĀ istically and if a 'knowledge-based platform' Qafari 1989) is adopted. The 'advocacyĀ based', 'cautionary-based', and 'adaptancy-based' platforms currently in use are one-dimensional approaches to tourism. They focus primarily on either the positive or negative aspects of the industry, and are not mutually exclusive or able to replace one another. The 'knowledge-based' platform, on the other hand, takes into account the multidimensionality of tourism, presenting a balanced perspective which bridges various existing views and is intended to contribute to the formulation of a scientific body of tourism. Such a perspective presents a fairer treatment of the touristic phenomenon and its impacts on tourists, hosts, tourist corporations, governments, and other involved parties.
OBJECTIVES
In the past thirty years, a number of sociologists (among others, see Apostolopoulos 1993, 1995a, b; Boorstin 1992; Britton 1982; Cohen 1972, 1974, 1979a, b, 1984, 1988a, b; Dann 1977, 1981; Dann and Cohen 1991; de Kadt 1979; Forster 1964; Graburn 1989; Karch and Dann 1981; Lanfant 1980; MacCannell1976, 1992; MachĀ lis and Burch 1983; Pearce 1982; Turner and Ash 1976; van den Berghe 1992; Young 1973) have been intrigued by the growth of tourism as an economic and cultural phenomenon and by its dramatic impact on both developed and developing nations. Although their research has utilized various sociological theories and perspectives2 the majority of sociological work on tourism has been relatively detached from a substantive theoretical examination. Most studies have focused only on a descriptive level, and those which have included theoretical ideas have most often done so in an implicit or underdeveloped manner. Owing to the general lack of grounded theory, sophisticated methodological/statistical treatment of tourism data, and adequate contextualization in broader applied domains (Dann and Cohen 1991), the sociology of tourism as a formal sociological speciality (similar to the sociology of education, sociology of the family, and so forth) has not yet been established within the discipĀ line of sociology. As a consequence, no single sociological perspective reasonably claims a monopoly in the understanding of tourism. At present, the sociology of tourism is in a state of flux, in search of an 'all embracing theory of tourism' and in search of identity (Dann and Cohen 1991).
It is no surprise, then, that there has been no single work in book format (text book in particular) in the international (English language) literature which attempts comprehensively to explore the sociology of tourism in terms of all its basic dimenĀ sions. However, books have been published on the anthropology, history, marketing, management, economics, and geography of tourism. While these disciplines as a whole provide a broad coverage of tourism, the topic remains in need of the unifyĀ ing perspective a sociological approach can provide. It is the present authors' intent both to present this perspective and provide a push towards establishing the formally recognized sociological examination of tourism. Furthermore, the transition of the social structure from an industrial to a 'post-industrial' or 'modem' type, along with the fact that leisure is displacing work as the centre of modem social arrangements,3 currently offer tourism the potential to surpass any previous records in volume of travellers and economic output. Such a dynamic process can always be examined in retrospect; now is the time to explore it sociologically as it unfolds.
The sociologists whose seminal works have provided the foundation for a socioĀ logical approach to tourism are primarily Cohen, MacCannell, Urry, and Lanfant. Their individual contributions are both comprehensive and profound, and efforts to expand their work with a strong empirical approach would boost even further the emerging sociology of tourism. This anthology will begin to Ā£ill a gap in the literature through its comprehensive presentation of the sociological picture of tourism. A truly holistic, pluralistic sociological approach to tourism will attempt to address all that affects and is affected by tourism. Tourism service-sector development is as important a focus as tourist/resident interaction. Regardless of whether tourism is considered or treated as a 'commercialized hospitality', 'democratized travel', 'modern leisure activity', 'modern variety of the traditional pilgrimage', 'expression of basic cultural themes', 'acculturative process', a 'type of ethnic relations', or a 'form of neocolonialism' (Cohen 1984), it remains a complex sociocultural, political, and economic phenomenon that demands systematic sociological investigation.
The Sociology of Tourism: Theoretica and Empirical lnvestligations is being presented, quite simply, for those interested in the study of tourism's role in society. This book should serve the interests of both those with a newfound interest in the field and those who already have some understanding of tourism in the sociocultural and socioeconomic process. Its most fundamental goal is to assist the reader in developĀ ing a sociological perspective related to the emerging and dynamic institution of tourism. Whether a member of the social science community or of the tourism inĀ dustry itself, from service to management, the reader will benefit from a sociological approach to tourism with a broader, more comprehensive understanding of the industry and his or her role within it.
ORGANIZATION AND THEMES
This anthology is a pioneering work aimed at introducing and legitimizing the socioĀ logical study of tourism in international academe. It is intended to 'reinvent' an area first presented three decades ago. The anthology is based upon the major theme of tourism as a far-reaching transnational industry that continues to affect crucially the 'post-industrial' world. The book is divided into seven parts, organized around variĀ ous major sociological themes. The themes have been selected with attention to conĀ tinuity and to the provision of a unifying structure for the collection as a whole. It presents a variety of theoretical and methodological approaches in order to provide a more pluralistic sociological picture.
Most studies on tourism can be classified as 'impact' research, incorporated in the literature of the sociology of leisure, migration, or travel. The present anthology treats tourism as an autonomous, dynamic entity which has marked and continually defines an era. Tourism is addressed in a conventional sociological-text manner with all the major societal areas covered as they relate to the touristic phenomenon. This was selected as the best approach, taking into account the complexity of the touristic phenomenon and the lack of systematic sociological work on the subject. In this way, the seven parts comprise an anthology that can serve as a skeleton text as well. The following sections are summaries of the material and perspectives presented in each chapter.
Part I Towards a Sociological Understanding of Contemporary Tourism
How does society really work? Who really has power? Who benefits under the existĀ ing social arrangements and who does not? Sociology concerns itself with answering such all-important questions. This introductory part provides a collection of articles which exemplify a sociological approach to tourism, an approach concerned with 'seeing through' the fa des of social structures. The works by Crick and Cohen offer a comprehensive framework for the sociological study of tourism. The strucĀ ture of the tourism system - the tourist (motivations, attitudes, reactions, and roles), relations and perceptions of hosts and guests, and the study of hosts and hosting - and the socioeconomic and sociocultural impact of the tourism industry provide a unique analytical setting. In addition, it is becoming clear that regardless of the fact that tourism and travel seem to generate contradictory representations in social science research and the fact that the term 'tourist' is increasingly used as a derisive label for someone who seems content with his or her obviously unauthentic experiences, tourism provides an irreplaceable key to understanding the peculiarities of modern culture.
Part II The Tourism System and the Individual
Through socialization, human beings come to share certain symbols, ideologies, norms, values, and roles in the existing social structure. While there is a tendency for the members of a given society to be alike in these shared characteristics, heteroĀ geneity increases with the size of a society. The sources of the differences include the family, schools, religions, social locations, contradictory influences, and conflicts in role definitions. This part presents an analysis of how the international tourism system influences the prospective tourist and host, and how they interact among themselves despite their inherent cultural differences. The fulfilment of certain needs creates specific motivations which result in related roles, behaviours, and tourĀ istic experiences. The works by Parrinello and Cohen present the touristic experience in a comprehensive manner in accordance with the complexity of the phenomenon. In a 'post-industrial' society where the service sector dominates the international economic arena, the motivation for travel and tourism is closely associated with the phase of anticipation. On the other hand, structural theorizing about tourism proĀ poses that social behaviours are governed not only by immediate relations with close kin and friends but also by the collective influence of relational patterns within social networks. This quest for a touristic experience could be distinguished in the recreĀ ational, diversionary, experiential, experimental, and existential mode and supports the notion of the existence of identifiable and stable forms of touristic behaviour.
Part III Structures of Social Inequality in the Tourism System
Social inequality refers to the existence of differential degrees of social influence or prestige among individual members of the same society. Social stratification involves the existence within a single society of t...
