Ruling Shaikhs and Her Majesty's Government

1960-1969

Miriam Joyce

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2004
• eBook ISBN: 9781135772536
• Topic: Politik & Internationale Beziehungen
• Subtopic: Politik

This volume discusses the evolution of the British-protected Gulf states during the 1960s and explains how these small Shaikhdoms moved towards independence. Based on extensive research using British documents from the Public Records Office and selected American documents from the National Archives, this book investigates the relationship between British officials and Arab Gulf Shaikhs. At the beginning of what was to be their final years as guardians of the Gulf, British officials pressed for political progress, co-operation among the Shaikhdoms and improvements in education and health care. At the same time, Foreign Office officials continued to safeguard specific British economic interests and the political interests of the Western Alliance.

1

The Trucial States

As the decade of the 1960s began, the seven shaikhdoms, known as the Trucial States, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Qawain, Ras Al Khaimah, and Fujairah, an area of 32,000 square miles, remained dependent on Britain for protection and economic assistance. There were numerous differences among the rulers and sometimes quarrels between members of the same ruling family. Her Majesty’s Government (HMG) wished to retain its position in the region, but at the same time wanted the various ruling shaikhs to work together to ensure stability and to improve conditions for the area’s inhabitants.

In order to enhance cooperation among the seven Trucial rulers, in 1952, Britain had established a Trucial State Council, but at the beginning of the 1960s, British officials hesitated to call a meeting of that Council, which had not met in two years. It appeared that one of the most important rulers, Abu Dhabi’s Shaikh Shakhbut bin Sultan Al Nuhayyan, was unlikely to attend. Abu Dhabi’s ruler was at loggerheads with Britain over two issues: a long-standing dispute with neighboring Qatar and legal jurisdiction in his shaikhdom. Shaikh Shakhbut claimed a portion of coast that extended up to Umm Said and some small islands off the Qatar peninsula, including the island of Halul. In addition, Shaikh Shakhbut wanted the British to surrender court jurisdiction in his state. Prior to relinquishing jurisdiction London insisted that Abu Dhabi modernize its legal system.

Although British officials considered Shaikh Shakhbut difficult and unpredictable, Assistant Head of Whitehall’s Arabian Department Robert Walmsley was confident that the ruler of Abu Dhabi was ‘a gentleman’ and, therefore, a satisfactory formula could be worked out.¹ London told Shaikh Shakhbut that it was ready to follow the same process that earlier had been applied to Kuwait; a step-by-step procedure with the British turning over legal jurisdiction after adequate local legislation was in place. To start the process, London was willing to permit Shaikh Shakhbut jurisdiction over all Muslims except Turks, and Pakistanis. The ruler was not satisfied.²

Although Shaikh Shakhbut was receiving income from Trucial States Petroleum Development Ltd, and Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA), companies developing oilfields in his shaikhdom, he spent little on public improvement. British officials speculated that Shaikh Shakhbut had accumulated approximately £1 million, which he put in five-gallon oil tins and placed under his bed. Although he had agreed to donate 4 percent of his income toward the economic development of the entire area, Shaikh Shakhbut had not done so. Hence, he was unpopular with his subjects and with the other shaikhdoms.³

Therefore, despite the presence of oil companies there were few significant signs of change in Abu Dhabi. ADMA’s presence, however, provided what became a popular form of evening entertainment. The company set up a projector near the beach. Using the wall of a house, ADMA showed movies to a delighted audience, which sat on the sand. Recalling his childhood in Abu Dhabi, Mohammed Al Fahim wrote:

We loved to see the cowboys in their strange hats, riding horses and firing from their six-shooters. Sometimes, much to our delight and amazement, they would show a cartoon before the film started. We were captivated by the animated characters and their crazy antics.⁴

Meanwhile, interested in enhancing Britain’s reputation in the Trucial States, Political Resident Sir George Middleton wished to give each of the seven rulers a new saluting gun. The saluting guns in use were ‘antique and dangerous to their friends.’⁵ Whitehall doubted that the Treasury would approve because ‘the idea of just gratifying the whims of autocrats in matters which do not benefit subjects in the slightest provides fair game for parliamentary criticism.’⁶

Since London resisted, Sir George reduced his request, asking only for guns to present to the rulers of Ajman and Umm al Qawain. When the Foreign Office continued to have difficulty convincing the Treasury, Political Resident Middleton argued that he was not suggesting Britain ‘gratify the whims of autocrats.’ The rulers were in charge because it had long been British policy to protect them.

The more we can get them on our side, the easier it will be to guide these Rulers along the right path in their affairs for the betterment of their people. In other words a little gun can go a long way in helping us in our policies here. It is vital that we should retain the good will of the Trucial Shaikhs and I think the expenditure of just over £500 on these ‘toys’ for the two Rulers will be well worth while.⁷

Finally, in July 1960, the Foreign Office ordered the purchase of two 25-pound guns. Afterwards, these guns were shipped to Aden. The War Office requested that, once the guns arrived there, local officials arrange transportation to Ajman and Umm Al Qawain.⁸

Now British attention turned to Dubai, where the shaikhdom’s port continued to grow and to earn income from customs duties. In 1957, a Municipal Council had been formed and, together with the ruler Shaikh Rashid bin Said Al Maktum, began an extensive planning program. Three years later, Dubai Creek was dredged to permit seven-foot draft vessels to cross the bar at all times. A new airport was opened, a modern telephone system installed, and work on electrical and water supply facilities was in progress.⁹

Smuggling, however, remained an important economic activity. Gold was freely imported into the shaikhdom and then, ‘with the connivance of poorly paid’ customs officials, transported in motorized dhows into India and Pakistan. Visiting Dubai at the beginning of December 1961, American Consul in Dhahran John E.Horner called at the office of Shaikh Rashid Al Maktum who referred to his city as ‘the Venice of the East.’ Horner noted that, unlike the other rulers of the region, Shaikh Rashid did not receive him in the usual majlis (meeting room), but in a small office furnished with a steel desk. From his office, Shaikh Rashid actively promoted the development of his territory and opportunity for his 45,000 subjects.¹⁰ On a later visit, however, Horner commented on the absence of education in the shaikhdom. At the end of June 1962, the American official was surprised to see a life preserver with Hebrew letters attached to the stern of a dhow which was anchored alongside Dubai Creek harbor. The life preserver had been found at sea and picked up as salvage without any understanding of its Israeli connection. According to Horner, the incident had no political significance, but illustrated the ignorance that prevailed in even the most advanced Trucial State.¹¹

Arriving in Dubai four years later, the newly appointed Political Agent, D.A.Roberts, was amazed at the variety of commercial activities in progress. Like Consul General Horner, Roberts was impressed by the energy and ability of Shaikh Rashid, who had created a modern town before he had the benefit of oil wealth.

It requires a conscious and continuous effort not to be captivated by Sheikh Rashid’s devastating charm, with which goes an agile brain, simplicity of personal life, generosity, and an immense capacity for hard work. One has to remind oneself continually how devious he is and how ruthless he is capable of being when he sees his objective clearly.¹²

Neighboring Sharjah did not have Dubai’s advantages. Sharjah suffered from the absence of an adequate water supply and in the summer of 1960, with the exception of a few private generators, there was no electricity available in the state. The only hospital in the Sharjah, the American Mission Hospital, was ‘desperately overworked.’ The one doctor, Sarah Hosman, was 84 years old. She administered to so many patients that babies were delivered outside the hospital in the street or in cars. The ruler offered to provide additional space, but his offer did not resolve the problem of staffing.¹³

As HMG wrestled with the difficulties of how to maintain stability and at the same time to promote development, the United States began to show an increased interest in the Trucial States. Prior to relinquishing his post in Saudi Arabia, in January 1961 American Consul General in Dhahran Walter K.Schwinn visited all of the Trucial States with the exception of Fujairah. Schwinn reported to Washington that the rulers were genuinely pleased that an official representative of the United States had called. The shaikhs expressed considerable interest in the new American administration. ‘Virtually all, after inquiring of the health of the President asked God to give him strength and success.’ As a result of his visits Schwinn recommended that annual calls be paid to the Trucial State rulers.¹⁴

During his farewell tour, the American Consul General asked Political Agent in Dubai Donald Hawley for his opinion about the possibility of forging a federation of the Trucial States. Hawley was skeptical that federation was possible. He predicted that Abu Dhabi’s Shaikh Shakhbut would soon have a large income from the oil resources of his territory and would, therefore, be unwilling to cooperate. Hawley claimed that the other rulers would not oppose Shaikh Shakhbut ‘either through fear of his wrath or desire for his favor.’ Nevertheless, Hawley was not prepared to proceed with a plan for a federation that did not include Abu Dhabi; a plan which would form a union of the six other Trucial States with Dubai in a leading role. The American blamed Britain for contributing to the difficulty in establishing a union of all seven states. Schwinn said that earlier, Britain should have decisively acted to create a federation, ‘even at the cost of arm-twisting.’ According to the American Consul General:

As matters now stand, federation of all the Trucial States seems likely to remain an iridescent dream or, at best, a truncated and ineffectual affair subject to constant intrigue and plotting.¹⁵

In April 1961, all seven rulers attended the sixteenth meeting of the Trucial Council, which was held in Dubai. During the meeting, Political Agent Hawley, who served as chairman, announced that Britain planned to spend more than £800,000 on development in the next five years.¹⁶ Funds would be available for public health, agricultural stations and education, including sending Trucial State subjects abroad to study. Later, in his farewell address, the departing Political Resident Sir George Middleton emphasized the importance of collaboration among the states:

There is an Arabic Proverb which says that ‘one’s neighbour matters more than one’s house, and one’s travelling companion more than the road on which one travels.’ We are all neighbours now. The rapid improvements in communications have made us so. Increasing cooperation is therefore essential for the future development and welfare of the Trucial States…¹⁷

After the meeting, Hawley reiterated his opinion that prospects for a federation uniting the Trucial States were not good as long as the ruler of Abu Dhabi continued to participate in the Council.¹⁸

During the summer of 1961, Shaikh Shakhbut finally invited several large contractors to visit his state to discuss development possibilities. He made some agreements, but abruptly changed his mind and dismissed the visiting businessmen. Given Shaikh Shakhbut’s temperament, several companies decided that the best way to approach him was first to become established in the region and earn a good reputation. A few had earlier been successful. After establishing a bank branch in Sharjah, the Eastern Bank was permitted to open one in Abu Dhabi, and following its success in Dubai, the British Bank of the Middle East was also allowed to open in Shaikh Shakhbut’s territory.¹⁹

Relations between the British and Shaikh Shakhbut, however, continued to be strained. In March 1962, the British awarded the disputed island of Halul to the Shaikh of Qatar.²⁰ Shaikh Shakhbut was disappointed and angry. Political Agent Colonel Hugh Boustead pointed out that Ab...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Halftitle
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of maps
• Foreword
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• 1 The Trucial States
• 2 Qatar
• 3 Bahrain
• 4 Kuwait
• 5 Oman
• 6 1968: Year of decision
• 7 Countdown to withdrawal
• Conclusion
• Index