Using Games and Simulations in the Classroom

A Practical Guide for Teachers

Henry Ellington, Joannie Fowlie, Monica Gordon, Henry (Director Ellington

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• eBook ISBN:
  9781134731855
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Games and simulations are an effective way of supporting the curriculum. This handbook demonstrates how to develop and use games and simulations in schools. It provides practical advice and guidance on how and when to use these as well as illustrative cases from nursery schools to secondary level.

1

A Guided Tour of the Game/Simulation/Case-Study Field

Since some readers are probably unfamiliar with educational games and simulations, we will begin by defining a few basic terms and taking you on a short ‘guided tour’ of the game/simulation/case-study field.

Some basic definitions

Let us begin by explaining what educationalists understand by the term game. Here, most people accept the broad definition given by Clark Abt in 1968: ‘any contest (play) among adversaries (players) operating under constraints (rules) for an objective (winning, victory or pay-off)’. Thus, to qualify as a ‘game’, an exercise must have two basic characteristics, namely, overt competition of some sort, and rules (arbitrary constraints within which the players have to operate).

One possible weakness of this definition is that it appears to exclude from the class of ‘games’ exercises in which a single player competes directly against the game system (patience, pinball, crosswords, arcade games, computer games, and so on). This anomaly can easily be resolved, however, by regarding the deviser of the game system as one of the ‘adversaries’ in such cases. Somewhat more disturbingly, it could also be argued that the definition includes most modern wars, since these undoubtedly incorporate ‘competition’, and are – in theory at any rate – fought under the ‘rules’ of the Geneva Convention!

Let us now explain what is meant by a simulation. Here, the generally accepted definition is that given by Guetzkow in 1963: ‘an operating representation of central features of reality’. Thus, to qualify as a ‘simulation’, an exercise must again have two essential features, namely, it must represent a real situation of some sort, and must be ongoing, ie dynamic.

Again, the definition has a possible weakness in that it appears to exclude from the class of ‘simulations’ exercises such as ‘Space Invaders’ and ‘Dungeons and Dragons’ which are based on purely imaginary scenarios. This anomaly can be overcome by extending the definition of ‘reality’ to include all situations that could conceivably be real. It should also be noted that the definition excludes purely static analogues such as maps, plans and circuit diagrams, but includes working models and animated representations of all types.

Finally, let us explain what is meant by the term ‘case study’. Here, there is no universally accepted definition, but the one given by Fred Percival and Henry Ellington in 1980 is probably as good as any: ‘an in-depth examination of a real-life or simulated situation carried out to illustrate special and/or general characteristics’. Thus, to qualify as a ‘case study’, an exercise must again have two essential features, namely, in-depth study carried out in order to illustrate particular characteristics.

The above definition probably includes most things that readers would regard as constituting ‘case studies’. Also note that the ‘particular characteristics’ being illustrated can either be special characteristics specific to the case being examined or more general features of the broader set of which it is a member; case studies are used to illustrate both types of characteristics.

Classification of exercises by ‘function’

Since the early 1970s, it has been increasingly recognized that games, simulations and case studies are in fact closely inter-related. Indeed, it is now accepted that they form broad overlapping sets that can be represented by a Venn diagram of the type shown in Figure 1.1.

We can see from Figure 1.1 that there are at least seven distinct types of exercise within the game/simulation/case-study field, namely, three ‘pure’ types and four ‘hybrid’ types. Let us now illustrate these by means of examples.

1.‘Pure’ games. These are exercises which possess both of the essential characteristics of games (competition and rules) but not those of simulations or case studies. Scrabble and football are two well-known examples, as are familiar card games such as bridge, rummy and poker.

2.‘Pure’ simulations. These are exercises which have the essential characteristics of simulations (ie, are ongoing representations of real situations) but not of games or case studies. Training simulators such as the Link Trainer developed during the Second World War to teach basic flying skills are good examples of the genre, as are many computer simulations and ‘virtual reality’ situations.

3.‘Pure’ case studies. These are exercises which have the essential features of case studies (in-depth study carried out to illustrate special characteristics) but not of games or simulations. Conventional legal and medical case studies fall into this category.

4.Simulation/games. These are exercises which have all the essential features of both games and simulations, but not of case studies. Monopoly is a well-known example of the genre, as is chess, which is based on a battle in eighth-century India (how many people realize that the moves of the rook simulate those of the war elephant?).

5.Games used as case studies. These are exercises which have all the essential characteristics of games and case studies, but not of simulations. A good example is WFF'N Proof – a game that was developed at the University of Michigan for use in the teaching of symbolic logic and mathematics. Further examples include the use of simple gambling games (such as coin-tossing and craps) as case studies in probability theory.

6.Simulated case studies. These are exercises which have the essential features of both simulations and case studies but not of games. The ‘simulated patient’ technique developed at McMaster University in Canada for use in medical training is a well-known example, as are virtual-reality operations (as in veterinary procedures) and virtual-reality tours (as in architectural design) in which parameters can be varied.

7.Simulationjgames used as case studies. These are exercises which have all the essential features of games, simulations and case studies. Examples are Starpower (a well-known simulation of social class conflict that was developed at the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute in California during the late 1960s) and The Bruce Oil Management Game (a computer-based business game that was developed in Robert Gordon's Institute of Technology during the 1970s). Both will be described later in this book.

Figure 1.1 The overlapping sets of games, simulations and case studies.

Classification of exercises by ‘format’

In addition to the above classification by function (ie, in terms of the way in which they are used) games, simulations and case studies are often classified by format (ie, in terms of the medium in which they are presented). Here, the most important distinction is between manual exercises (which do not involve the use of a computer or other electronic data-processing system) and electronic exercises (which do involve the use of such devices). In developing this sort of classification, it is possible to use similar hierarchical taxonomies to those used to classify living things. Figure 1.2 gives some indication of how this might be done.

We can see from Figure 1.2 that manual exercises can be subdivided into basic classes such as simple manual exercises (those which involve the use of no specialized materials other than briefing sheets, role cards, etc), card games (that involve the use of a specialized pack or packs of cards), board games (that are played on a special board of some sort), and so on. These basic classes, in turn, can be further subdivided and sub-subdivided until we eventually come down to individual exercises such as chess and Scrabble. Electronic exercises can be classified in a similar way. We have, however, resisted the temptation to develop an all-embracing format-based classification of the game/simulation/case-study field, since this is meant to be a practical book for teachers rather than a theoretical book for academics. We leave it to some latter-day Linnaeus or budding Bloom to produce the definitive version of such a taxonomy. No doubt there is a PhD (or at least a ‘Masters’ degree) in it for whoever manages to see the task through!

Exercises of the game/simulation/case study type

Figure 1.2 The hierarchical classification of games, simulations and case studies.

2

Some General Educational Features of Games and Simulations

Let us now take a general look at some of the basic educational characteristics of games and simulations, analysing their strengths and weaknesses and identifying some of the main educational contexts in which they can be used.

Some of the educational strengths of games and simulations

There are a number of reasons why games and simulations are useful from an educational point of view, some of the most important of which are listed below.

•First, games and simulations constitute a highly versatile and flexible medium whereby a wide range of cognitive objectives covering all six levels of Bloom's cognitive domain can be achieved. Although research has shown that such techniques are no more effective than traditional methods in teaching the basic facts and principles of a subject, they have been found to be particularly useful in reinforcing the teaching of such facts and principles, and in providing useful case studies and enhancement experiences. They are also particularly effective in achieving higher-cognitive objectives of all types, ie in developing pupils’ powers of application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

•Games and simulations are also ideal vehicles for developing the transferable process skills that have become such an important part of all levels of education since the early 1980s, especially in Britain, where their development has become a key part of government policy. They are particularly well suited for developing decision-making, problem-solving, interpersonal and communication skills – the sort of skills that employers are increasingly coming to expect in the products of our education systems.

•One of the main reasons why games and simulations have achieved such widespread use since the late 1960s is that they fitted in well with the move towards pupil-centred learning that was triggered by the humanistic psychology school at roughly the same time. Classroom games and simulations are ideal vehicles for facilitating such learning, since they are, by their very nature, strongly ‘pupil-centred’.

•In many cases, exercises of the game/simulation/case-study type also constitute vehicles whereby pupils can use their initiative and develop their powers of creative thought. This characteristic is again proving particularly important as our educational systems continue to place progressively greater emphasis on the cultivation of divergent thought processes.

•Games, simulations and case studies are also extremely effective vehicles for achieving affec...

Table of contents

• Front Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• Chapter 1 A guided tour of the game/simulation/case-study field
• Chapter 2 Some general educational features of games and simulations
• Chapter 3 Choosing and using games and simulations: some basic guidelines
• Chapter 4 Using games and simulations with nursery classes
• Chapter 5 Using games and simulations with early-primary pupils
• Chapter 6 Using games and simulations with upper-primary and lower-secondary pupils
• Chapter 7 Using games and simulations with older secondary pupils
• Chapter 8 Designing your own exercises: the ‘top-down’ approach
• Chapter 9 Designing your own exercises: the ‘bottom-up’approach
• Chapter 10 Involving pupils in the design process
• Further Reading
• Information on Published Exercises
• Index