E-Waste Management

From Waste to Resource

Klaus Hieronymi, Ramzy Kahhat, Eric Williams, Klaus Hieronymi, Ramzy Kahhat, Eric Williams

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• Print ISBN: 9781849714020
• eBook ISBN: 9781136299117
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Ecology
• Index: Technology & Engineering

The landscape of electronic waste, e-waste, management is changing dramatically. Besides a rapidly increasing world population, globalization is driving the demand for products, resulting in rising prices for many materials. Absolute scarcity looms for some special resources such as indium. Used electronic products and recyclable materials are increasingly crisscrossing the globe. This is creating both - opportunities and challenges for e-waste management.

This focuses on the current and future trends, technologies and regulations for reusable and recyclable e-waste worldwide. It compares international e-waste management perspectives and regulations under a view that includes the environmental, social and economic aspects of the different linked systems. It overviews the current macro-economic trends from material demand to international policy to waste scavenging, examines particular materials and product streams in detail and explores the future for e-waste and its' management considering technology progress, improving end-of-lifecycle designs, policy and sustainability perspectives. To achieve this, the volume has been divided in twelve chapters that cover three major themes:

• holistic view of the global e-waste situation
• current reserve supply chain and management of used electronics, including flows, solutions, policies and regulations
• future perspectives and solutions for a sustainable e-waste management.

The emphasis of the book is mainly on the dramatic change of the entire e-waste sector from the cheapest way of getting rid of e-waste in an environmental sound way to how e-waste can help to reduce excavation of new substances and lead to a sustainable economy.

It is an ideal resource for policy-makers, waste managers and researchers involved in the design and implementation of e-waste.

1
ELECTRONIC WASTE

Environment and Society

Ramzy Kahhat

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING, PONTIFICIA UNIVERSIDAD CATÓLICA DEL PERÚ

1.1 Introduction

Electronics equipment significantly influences the way societies relate, and it is impossible to ignore the vast positive impacts of electronics use by society. Nevertheless, important concerns also exist related to the flow of electronics deemed obsolete by consumers (e.g. households, corporations, public agencies, schools) all over the world. These concerns intensify as the manufacturing and adoption rate, triggered by technological development of these devices, increases around the world. For example, the number of mobile phones per capita in the United States and China increased 139% and 725% from 2000 to 2009, respectively (1).

Compared to expenditures on product development, marketing, and sales, a smaller amount of resources has been devoted to the end-of-use management of electronic equipment, such as reuse, recycling, and landfilling. In the last two decades, some countries and regions have focused on the management of this complex waste stream. The oldest and probably most successful electronic waste (e-waste) or waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) system is the one found in Switzerland, with recycling rates of approximately 9.8 kg of e-waste per person per year (2). SWICO (Swiss Association for Information, Communication and Organization Technology) and SENS (Swiss Foundation for Waste Management), the two e-waste systems in the country, collect and recycle a vast portfolio of electronics, including information technology (IT) and office equipment products (SWICO) and home appliances (SENS) (2, 3). Moreover, with the implementation of the WEEE Directive and under the principle of extended producer responsibility (EPR), the members of the European Union (EU) have been adopting regulations to properly manage e-waste (4). The overall goals of the WEEE regulations include improvement of equipment design, collection at the end of use, environmentally sound treatment and material recovery at the end of life (EoL), and consumer awareness. The original recycling rate target for the WEEE Directive is 4 kg per person per year, which includes a vast range of products: large and small household appliances, IT and telecommunication products, and consumer equipment (4). Although enforcement started in 2003, the implementation timeframe for the WEEE regulation varied from country to country on the basis of factors such as negotiations with stakeholders and transfer from previous country-specific WEEE regulations to the EU WEEE (5). In Asia, Japan and South Korea have vast experience managing e-waste, including televisions (TVs), refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, and computers (6, 7). In North America, several American states and Canadian provinces have e-waste programs, including California, Maine, Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, and Saskatchewan, and many other North American locations are in the process of adopting e-waste collection and recycling systems (6, 8). Following the lead of the above-mentioned e-waste management systems and in some cases learning from past experiences, other countries around the world have or plan to adopt strategies to handle e-waste. For example, Thailand is currently developing an e-waste management system that will potentially increase e-waste recycling in the formal domestic sector (9).

In spite of this, consideration of the culture of a country is often missing, and the assumption that a successful e-waste management system in country A will function in country B is typically made (6, 10). The e-Market for Returned Deposit program proposed for the United States is an e-waste management system that reflects the political structure and underlying culture of the country, namely, a preference for economic rather than regulatory incentives. While ensuring proper post-consumer management options, the proposed system creates a competitive market for asset management companies, including refurbishers and recyclers (6).

Moreover, the supply chain for new electronics, as well as the flow of e-waste, is global. Used electronics generated in a particular country may be managed in another country. For this reason the transboundary flow of e-waste, particularly from developed to developing countries, has also been a focus of international and national legislation. The most important international regulation, discussed in detail in other chapters of this book, is the Basel Convention (11). It regulates the flow of hazardous waste (including some categories of e-waste with no reuse potential) between countries by requiring prior notification between the two signatories’ trade partners. In addition, many countries (e.g. China, Vietnam, and Indonesia) have domestic legislation that controls the importation of e-waste, including used electronics with reuse potential.

The above-mentioned regulations certainly have positive implications for management of the e-waste flow; however, much needs to be done to develop a holistic solution to end-of-use and EoL management for electronics both locally and globally. Most regulations and policies around the world have focused on the most visible environmental aspects related to the EoL of e-waste, and in doing so have abandoned or de-emphasized other important environmental, social, and economic dimensions of this complex situation. For example, some legislation has increased recycling rates by discouraging reuse (e.g. the WEEE Directive and other EPR-based systems) or has banned the transboundary flow of e-waste (including equipment with reuse potential) from developed to developing countries (e.g. the Basel Convention). However, few regulations have focused on the positive environmental and socioeconomic impacts, such as reuse of personal computers (PCs) or mobile phones, or the economic aspects, such as employment generation related to the refurbishment and trade of used electronics around the world.

This chapter describes all of the implications of the global e-waste situation: environmental, social, and economic. Section 2 explores the environmental dimension of e-waste around the globe, including landfills, formal and informal recycling, and reuse. Section 3 discusses the social and economic impacts of e-waste in our society. Finally, Section 4 discusses the need for a holistic approach to the sustainable management of e-waste around the world.

1.2 E-Waste and the Environment

Attention to e-waste from the media and policy makers has been largely focused on environmental impacts related to landfills and informal recycling activities, also known as backyard recycling, in the developing world. This section discusses the most important studies related to these environmental concerns, as well as the environmental impacts of reuse and recycling.

1.2.1 E-Waste and Landfills

E-waste accounts for an estimated 2% of the municipal solid waste (MSW) in the United States and Canada (12, 13). In addition, according to the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), between 2006 and 2009, approximately 75–78% of electronics at their EoL ended up in American landfills (12). There is a strong belief from policy makers, the general public, and others that e-waste should not be placed in MSW landfills because of the high environmental risk of this EoL management option. Electronic equipment contains many elements that are toxic to humans and the environment, such as lead, mercury, and chromium. Table 1 presents some of the elements found in PCs and their corresponding CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act) priority rankings, which are based on “frequency, toxicity and potential for human exposure” at US facilities listed in the USEPA National Priorities List (14).

The inclusion of these toxic elements in e-waste considerably changes the perception of this type of waste and suggests that landfilling is not the best way to dispose of it. To assess the environmental risk related to the disposal of e-waste in landfills, researchers have primarily used the USEPA Toxic Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP), a test that simulates the leaching scenario when a particular waste is placed in an unlined MSW landfill. The TCLP test procedure requires grinding the test material (e.g. used printed circuit boards or PCBs), placing it in a buffered acid solution (pH 4.93 ± 0.05), rotating it for 18 hours, and measuring the levels of various elements (e.g. lead, mercury). Results show that PCBs containing lead solders, cathode ray tubes (CRTs) containing leaded glass, and some electronics (e.g. mobile phones, laptops) exceeded the TCLP federal limits for lead (5 mgl^-1), which classifies them as hazardous (15–19). However, TCLP could overestimate real landfill conditions for several reasons. The first is the aggressiveness of the liquids used. Jang and Townsend reported a two orders of magnitude difference between the original lead TCLP leachability results and those of a modified TCLP test that used real landfill leachate from 11 landfills located in Florida, where the average pH was greater than 8. The second is attenuation mechanisms caused by the presence of other materials, such as iron and zinc, that contribute to the suppression of lead leachability from PCBs and CRT glass (19). Third, the grinding of the equipment, as required by the TCLP procedure, will contribute to metal leaching (20).

TABLE 1.1 Elements in Desktop and Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors

Eletnent	CERCLA Priority Ranking (2007) ^*
Aluminum	187
Antimony	219
Arsenic	1
Bismuth	Not included
Cadmium	7
Chromium	77
Copper	128
Gold	Not included
Indium	Not included
Lead	2
Nickel	53
Platinum	Not included
Silver	214
Steel	Not included
Tin	Not included
Zinc	74

* Substances are ranked in the order of the significance of the potential threat they pose to human health owing to their known or suspected toxicity and potential for human exposure.

In addition, an extensive literature review performed by the author and colleagues that included real data obtained from landfill monitoring activities in the United States and Europe showed that, for well-managed, modern, lined landfills, disposal of e-waste represents a very small risk to the environment (10). The situation in poorly managed landfills or open dumps, which are typically found in developing countries, is certainly different and needs to be addressed. However, the EoL practices in those countries also differ, as in many cases they divert equipment, parts, and materials from landfills. For example, in the main cities of Mexico and Peru, informal street collectors and scavengers play an important role in diverting recyclable materials from landfills (21–23). Figure 1 shows the recyclable waste accumulated by scavengers working at a municipal-managed landfill in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico.

FIGURE 1.1 Recyclable waste accumulated by scavenging activities in a municipally managed landfill in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico.

1.2.2 Informal Recycling of E-Waste

Probably the most serious environmental impacts related to e-waste are tied to informal recycling activities performed in developing countries. Open burning of insulated copper wires to recover copper and cyanide as well as acid baths of PCBs to recover gold are examples of activities that are hazardous to the environment and human health. Unfortunately, informal recycling is increasing around the world (24). This trend is a product of not only the growth of e-waste in both developed and developing countries but also of an understanding that e-waste can generate revenue and employment. The main motivation for informal recycling activities is the attractive market value of certain elements found in electronics such as gold, copper, and steel, even though the primitive techniques used usually have low material recovery rates when compared with sophisticated technologies. For example, integrated smelters such as those found in Belgium, Sweden, and Japan, can recover approximately 95% of the gold contained in PCBs; the recovery rate i...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• CONTENTS
• LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
• CONTRIBUTORS
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• INTRODUCTION
• 1 ELECTRONIC WASTE: Environment and Society
• 2 CURRENT AND NEW ELECTRONIC WASTE RECYCLING TECHNOLOGIES
• 3 RECYCLING OF TECHNOLOGY METALS: A Holistic System Approach
• 4 A TALE OF THREE METALS
• 5 CLOSING THE PLASTIC LOOP: Turning the Supply Chain into a Supply Cycle by Mining Plastics from End-of-Life Electronics and other Durable Goods
• 6 EVALUATING THE PERFORMANCE OF RECYCLING SYSTEMS: Examples from North American and European Electronics Recycling Systems
• 7 CURRENT INTERNATIONAL FLOWS OF ELECTRONIC WASTE, FUTURE TASKS, AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
• 8 CONTROLLING TRADE IN ELECTRONIC WASTE: An Analysis of International Agreements and National Trade Policies in Asia
• 9 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF PRODUCT STREAMS AND THE NECESSARY ADAPTATION OF WASTE MANAGEMENT AND THE LEGISLATION RULING IT
• 10 REUSE: A Bridge from Unsustainable E-Waste to Sustainable E-Resources
• 11 ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY COMPETES FOR RAW MATERIALS: Will the Scarcity of Natural Resources Become a Showstopper for the Information and Communications Industry?
• 12 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES ON ELECTRONIC SCRAP
• INDEX