Politics in Organizations

Theory and Research Considerations

Gerald R. Ferris, Darren C. Treadway

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• Print ISBN: 9780415882132
• eBook ISBN: 9781136594007
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Labour & Industrial Relations
• Index: Psychology

This edited volume in the SIOP Frontiers series is one of the first to look at the psychological factors behind politics and power in organizations. Noted contributors from schools of management, psychology, sociology and political science look at the theory, research, methodology and ethical issues related to organizational politics and climates. The book is divided into three parts: Part 1 looks at the historical evolution of the field; Part 2 integrates organizational politics with important organizational behavior constructs and/or areas of inquiry, for example in the chapter by Lisa Leslie and Michele Gelfand which discusses the implications of cross-cultural politics on expatriates and within cross-national mergers; and Part 3 focuses on individual differences and organizational politics, focusing on the nature of political relationships.

Section II

Critical Research Issues in Organizational Politics

5

It’s Fairly Political Around Here: Relationship Between Perceptions of Organizational Politics and Organizational Justice

Maureen L. Ambrose

University of Central Florida

It seems obvious that perceptions of organizational politics and perceptions of organizational fairness should be related. Organizational politics involves informal behaviors that are self-serving, aimed at influencing another party, and designed to promote individual goals that are not sanctioned by the organization (Drory & Romm, 1990). Politicking involves activities such as working around formal organizational rules, influencing decision makers, and obtaining special favors—that is, activities that seem to fly in the face of conventional beliefs about fairness in organizations. Both organizational politics and organizational fairness play a central role in organizational life, yet remarkably few researchers explicitly have examined the relationship between them.

In this chapter, the current literature on perceptions of organizational politics and organizational justice is reviewed, with due consideration given to what is known, what is not yet known, and where research might go from here in these important areas of inquiry. The chapter begins with the examination of two foundational works on politics and justice. Next, empirical research is reviewed that considers justice as an antecedent of politics, a parallel influence to politics, a consequence of politics, and a moderator of the relationship between politics and outcomes. Finally, stock is taken of the current level of understanding concerning the relationship between these politics and justice, and opportunities for future research are discussed.

FOUNDATIONAL WORK

The focus of this chapter is on perceptions of organizational politics, which refer to individuals’ subjective evaluation of politics. The link between perception of politics and perceived fairness is implicit in early work on organizational politics. However, explicit and careful consideration of the relationship between the two occurred relatively recently. Research on organizational politics and justice spans only about 15 years. Two works emerge as central to the current state of the field: Ferris, Frink, Beehr, and Gilmore (1995) and Andrews and Kacmar (2001). Ferris, Frink et al. provided a theoretical foundation for examining the relationship between perceived politics and justice. Andrews and Kacmar provided the empirical foundation for the distinctness of the constructs.

Conceptual Integration of Politics and Justice

Ferris, Frink, et al. (1995) provided the first comprehensive consideration of the relationship between organizational fairness and organizational politics. They noted, “most would likely argue that politics inherently reflects unfairness” (p. 21). However, they suggested a more complex relationship between the two constructs. Specifically, they proposed that perceptions of politics and fairness may be positively related, negatively related, or independent, depending on contextual and situational contingencies.

Several observations from Ferris, Frink, et al. (1995) warrant attention and provide more detailed suggestions about possible relationships between perceived politics and fairness. First, Ferris, Frink, et al. reiterated the role of attributions of intentionality in labeling behavior as political (see Ferris, Bhawuk, Fedor, & Judge, 1995). They suggested that labeling is associated with a negative relationship between politics and fairness. Specifically, whether a behavior is labeled as fair or as political depends on whether it is viewed as beneficial (an opportunity) or detrimental (a threat) to the target. According to Ferris, Frink, et al., behaviors that are beneficial will be labeled as fair; those that are detrimental will be labeled as politics. Here, politics and justice are positioned as opposite ends of the same continuum.

Second, Ferris, Frink, et al. (1995) suggested that aiding employees in understanding and managing political processes in organizations serves to level the playing field. Rather than eschewing politics, Ferris, Frink et al. suggested that providing employees the opportunities to develop their political skills, acknowledging politics is a part of organizational life, and legitimatizing political behavior will enhance perceptions of fairness. Indeed, they stated, “As everyone becomes more political, the likelihood that someone will be surprised by an influence attempt is lessened and fairness is more likely to prevail” (p. 29). Thus, embracing politics (increased political behavior) is associated with increased perceived fairness.

Third, Ferris, Frink et al. (1995) proposed a typology of organizations depending on the total amount of political activity and the percentage of individuals engaged in political activity. Consistent with their overall analysis, Ferris, Frink et al. suggested that organizations in which political activity is high and the number of individuals engaging in political behavior is high (labeled highly participatory organizations) as well as organizations in which political activity is low and the percentage of individuals engaging in political activity is low (labeled pure bureaucracy) will be perceived as fair. In contrast, organizations in which political activity is high but only a few individuals engage in political activity will be perceived as the most unfair. Ferris, Frink et al. suggested that the relationship between the amount of political activity and fairness will be moderated by the dispersion of the political behavior.

Fourth, although not explicitly considered by Ferris, Frink et al. (1995), their analysis of the relationship between perceptions of politics and justice also suggests that procedural fairness may moderate the relationship between perceived politics and outcomes. Drawing on Ferris, Russ, and Fandt (1989), Ferris, Frink et al. (1995) suggested that control moderates the relationship between politics and outcomes. Ferris et al. (1989) suggested that whether politics is viewed as an opportunity (beneficial) or a threat (detrimental) is a function of the degree of control the individual feels over the political and work environment. Control plays an important role in the justice literature as well. Early research on justice by Thibaut and Walker (1975) conceptualized process control (i.e., often operationalized as voice) as central to perceptions of procedural fairness. Thus, one might extrapolate from Ferris, Frink et al.’s (1995) argument that procedural fairness would moderate the relationship between perceptions of politics and outcomes.

Finally, Ferris, Frink et al. (1995) acknowledged that their analysis of the relationship between politics and fairness is based on the view of the bystander. Actors and observers see things differently. As politics and fairness are perceptual phenomena, it is likely individuals engaged in political behavior (or as described already, benefiting from such behavior) will view the situation differently from observers (or those disadvantaged by such behavior). In other words, the relationship between perceived politics and fairness depends on the role of the evaluator.

Empirical Distinctiveness of Politics and Justice

Andrews and Kacmar (2001) investigated the empirical distinctiveness of organizational politics and organizational justice. Although previous research had treated these as distinct constructs, Andrews and Kacmar were the first to systematically evaluate this assumption. To establish the distinctiveness of the constructs, Andrews and Kacmar examined the relationship between perceptions of politics, organizational support, distributive justice, and procedural justice as well as differences in their antecedents. The focus here is on the comparisons of politics and fairness. Results of confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that perceived politics, procedural justice, and distributive justice were distinct constructs. Further, as predicted, they found differences in the relationship between antecedents of politics perceptions and perceptions of procedural and distributive justice. Formalization differentially predicted politics and procedural justice and locus of control differentially predicted politics and distributive justice.

Two aspects of Andrews and Kacmar’s (2001) study deserve further mention. First, the authors demonstrated that justice and politics are distinct, but they are also related. They concluded that the variables shared “at least to some extent, one mutual underlying construct” (p. 361). Second, Andrews and Kacmar demonstrated politics differs from both forms of justice but asserted that it is more distinctive from procedural justice than from distributive justice. They suggested that the unfair distribution of rewards may be perceived as a political activity, making political activity and distributive justice more closely related.

Summary

The research by Ferris, Frink et al. (1995) and Andrews and Kacmar (2001) provided a foundation for work on politics and justice. Ferris, Frink et al. provided the first detailed discussion of the relationship between organizational politics and organizational justice. Although only a few studies have explicitly examined the proposed relationships detailed in Ferris et al., the chapter provided a springboard for subsequent work in the area. Andrews and Kacmar established the empirical foundation for the distinctiveness of the constructs, clarifying the similarities among and differences between politics and justice.

One additional paper requires mention. The first 15 years of research on organizational politics was guided by a conceptual model of the antecedents and consequences of perceptions of politics developed by Ferris et al. (1989). About 13 years later, Ferris, Adams, Kolodinsky, Hochwarter, and Ammeter (2002) provided a review of organizational politics research and, based on their review, developed a revised perceptions of politics model. Fairness perceptions are included in the revised model as a consequence of politics perceptions. Although their discussion of politics and justice is brief, the Ferris et al. (2002) model is widely cited in subsequent research on politics and justice, as it provides a basis for the legitimacy and importance of the topic.

In the following sections, published research is reviewed that explicitly examines the relationship between politics and justice. The search of the literature identified 24 publications that have explicitly addressed this relationship.* This work is grouped into four categories based on the author’s conceptualization of the relationship between politics and justice. First, studies are described that conceptualize justice as an antecedent of politics. Second, research is reviewed that considers politics and justice as constructs that work in parallel to affect outcomes. Third, research is examined conceptualizing fairness as a consequence of politics. Fourth, research is examined that conceptualizes justice as a moderator of the relationship between politics and outcomes.

ORGANIZTIONAL JUSTICE AS AN ANTECEDENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS

Three articles have considered justice as an antecedent of perceptions of politics. In conceptual work, Dipboye (1995) examined the relationships among politics, empowerment, organizational support, and fairness in human resource management systems. He suggested that managers engage in political behavior as an attempt to restore control over procedures and policies that they see as inflexible and impersonal. Dipboye asserted that managers “destructure” procedures in an attempt to develop a satisfying work environment for their employees. That is, they engage in political behavior to create or maintain fairness.

Parker, Dipboye, and Jackson (1995) examined a range of antecedents and consequences of perceptions of politics. They investigated organizational influences (e.g., involvement in decision making, hierarchical level), personal influences (e.g., age, education), and job influences (e.g., intergroup cooperation, fairness of rewards), and they found that the perceived fairness of rewards (i.e., distributive fairness) and involvement in decision making (which can be classified as a proxy for procedural justice) were significant predictors of politics perceptions. Further, when organizational, personal, and job factors were taken into account, the perceptions of politics were unrelated to all of the employee attitudes they examined (i.e., perceived effectiveness of senior management, overall satisfaction, positive values, loyalty) with the exception of perceived innovation. In contrast, after accounting for perceptions of politics, involvement in decision making (i.e., procedural justice), significantly predicted all employee attitudes, and fairness of reward (i.e., distributive fairness) significantly predicted overall satisfaction.

Othman (2008) examined trust, justice, job ambiguity, perceptions of politics, and turnover intentions in a Malaysian finance company. Job ambiguity was conceptualized as an antecedent of justice and trust, justice as an antecedent of trust, and trust, justice, and job ambiguity as antecedents of perceptions of politics. Perceptions of politics were hypothesized to predict turnover intentions. Although Othman adapted Moorman’s (1991) measure of distributive, procedural, and interactional fairness, he did not differentiate among the fairness facets. Rather, all items were summed to create a single measure of fairness. Using structural equation modeling (SEM), Othman found support for his conceptualization. Job ambiguity was significantly related to justice and trust, and justice was a significant predictor of trust. All three antecedents also significantly predicted perceptions of politics and perceptions of politics predicted turnover intentions. Of the three predictors, justice exhibited the greatest influence on politics perceptions.

JUSTICE AND PERCEPTIONS OF POLITICS AS INDEPENDENT PREDICTORS

Two studies conceptualized justice and politics as independent antecedents of outcomes. First, Aryee, Chen, and Buhwar (2004) focused primarily on the distinctiveness of perceptions of politics and organizational justice. Aryee et al.’s primary purpose was to examine the relationship between organizational justice and perceptions of politics and to extend the work of Andrews and Kacmar (2001). Specifically, Aryee et al. examined organizational structural antecedents, procedural justice, perceptions of politics, and task and contextual performance. They reported the results of three studies. The first focused on the distinctiveness of the constructs. Using two samples, Aryee et al. demonstrated the distinctiveness of perceptions of politics, assessed by a shortened version of ...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• The Organizational Frontiers Series
• SIOP Organizational Frontiers Series
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Series Foreword
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Editors
• Contributors
• Section I Construct Specification, Theory Development, and Methodological Considerations
• Section II Critical Research Issues in Organizational Politics
• Section III Individual Differences in Organizational Politics
• Index