Teaching for Learning at University

Denise Chalmers, Richard Fuller

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• Print ISBN: 9780749420413
• eBook ISBN: 9781136354151
• Topic: Éducation
• Subtopic: Éducation générale

This text looks at how university teachers can teach their students learning strategies. It describes how teachers can teach each strategy in their normal classes and encourage students to use the strategies in their own study time. It includes case studies.

Part 1 : Learning and teaching at university

Chapter 1:

Perspectives on Learning and Teaching

Goals and purpose of university education

There have been significant changes in policies, organization, staffing, funding and management of universities over a number of years. Many of these changes have occurred as a consequence of government policies and not always with the willing cooperation of the universities concerned. One consequence of these changes is that students who now attend university are no longer drawn from an elite or privileged group but are more heterogeneous and representative of the general population. Both universities and students are adjusting to these changes with varying degrees of success.

While there have been significant changes in almost all aspects of university education, there continues to be general agreement among educators and policy makers about the goals and purpose of higher education. An Australian Government report, for example, states that the major function of university education is to ‘increase individuals’ capacity to learn, to provide them with a framework with which to analyse problems and to increase their capacity to deal with new information’ (Dawkins, 1987, p.1). A subsequent government report suggested that as a result of university education, ‘university graduates should possess a capacity to look at problems from a number of different perspectives, to analyse, to gather evidence, to synthesize, and to be flexible, creative thinkers’ (Aulich, 1990, p.3). These stated goals are shared with providers of higher education in other Western nations throughout the world.

Few would disagree that these are appropriate goals for higher education, though many would add to them. Edith Cowan University, for example, identifies several characteristics its graduates should possess as outcomes of their university experience:

thinks critically, reasons logically and has well developed problem-solving skills; has good interpersonal skills and is able to work as a member of a team and organization; and has the desire and the skills for continued intellectual development, creativity and enterprise (Edith Cowan University, 1994, p.6).

In common with the characteristics described by Edith Cowan University, the Aulich Report (1990) urged universities to include higher level learning skills in their curriculum so that students would be able to continue learning at the completion of their formal university education. This goal was more fully argued in the recent report for the National Board of Employment, Education and Training which recommended that universities provide undergraduate university students with a range of learning skills and attitudes to enable them to be lifelong learners (Candy et al., 1994).

Not only do the policy makers in government and universities agree on the goals and purpose of higher education; most university teachers have also been found to agree. University teachers from Australia and Canada, for example, agreed that their educational goals were to teach students to analyse ideas or issues critically, develop students’ intellectual and thinking skills and teach students to comprehend principles or generalizations (Ramsden, 1992, p.20). A number of university teachers also added that students should have the capacity to respond flexibly to changing circumstances, be able to learn throughout their lifetime, and to integrate theory and practice (Ramsden, 1992).

While these goals were identified by university teachers, they were likely to be expressed as specific goals related to a discipline of study. For example, history teachers wanted their students to demonstrate the effective use of evidence and social awareness, while physics teachers wanted their students to demonstrate the ability to interpret and analyse experimental data (Ramsden, 1992). It is important to note that while the specific goals were discipline-related, they were not directed at the accumulation of knowledge of specific content of a discipline, but at the more general principles of critical thinking and understanding.

While there is general agreement on the goals of universities, it is also clear that many students complete university without achieving these objectives. Dahlgren (1984) reviewed a number of studies on the outcomes of student learning at university and found that final-year students were generally able to reproduce large amounts of factual information, complete complex routine skills and computations, apply algorithms, demonstrate detailed subject knowledge using the appropriate terminology, and pass the set examinations. However, he also found that many students continued to hold misconceptions of important concepts, and were unable to demonstrate that they understood what they had learned, apply their knowledge to a new problem, or work cooperatively to solve problems. As a result of his review, Dahlgren concluded that university students’ conceptual changes ‘were relatively rare, fragile and context-dependent occurrences’ (1984, p.33). A number of more recent studies have confirmed Dahlgren’s general findings (Ramsden, 1992).

It would seem that many students complete university without achieving the intended goals of university education. These students achieve only a basic understanding of the discipline they are studying. They are able to recite facts, manipulate the jargon, and survive the assessments, but lack awareness of their own limited understanding of the principles of the discipline (Ramsden, 1992). The ways in which students view and approach their learning, and the ways in which teachers view and approach their teaching may provide some explanation of why students do not achieve the learning that universities claim they provide.

How students view their learning: conceptions of learning

Students begin a course of study with a set of beliefs about the nature of learning and what they intend to achieve (Biggs and Moore, 1993). Beliefs about what learning is and how learning takes place are called ‘conceptions of learning’. These are derived from earlier school and learning experiences as well as the students’ current goals and motives.

In a study conducted by Säljö (1979), university students were asked to describe what they thought about learning. From these descriptions Säljö identified five different conceptions of learning. A number of subsequent studies have confirmed the same five conceptions (eg, Marton and Ramsden, 1987; Van Rossum and Schenk, 1984), and more recently identified a sixth (Marton, dall’Alba and Beaty, 1993). The six conceptions are:

1. A quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is seen as acquiring information or ‘knowing a lot’ or ‘knowing more’. This acquisition takes place as a result of absorbing and storing knowledge.

2. Memorizing and reproduction. Learning is seen as storing information that can be reproduced as isolated pieces of knowledge. This takes place through rote learning, repetition and memorizing.

3. Applying knowledge. Learning is seen as acquiring facts, skills or procedures that can be retained and used as necessary. This takes place through the acquisition of knowledge that can be applied or used.

4. Making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning is seen as relating parts of the subject matter to other known parts and to the real world. This takes place through relating what is learned to other knowledge.

5. Interpreting and understanding reality in a different way. Learning is seen as involving a change in understanding or comprehending the world by re-interpreting knowledge. This takes place when learners identify patterns in information and relate these to information from different contexts and situations. As a consequence of identifying relationships that have not previously been recognized, learners change their understanding in a qualitatively different way.

6. Changing as a person. Learning is seen as understanding the world differently and as a consequence learners change within themselves. This takes place through a deep involvement in learning and by being in charge of one’s learning.

These six conceptions are thought to form a hierarchy, starting at the lowest level at which learning is seen as simply knowing more, through to where learning is seen as changing the person. As a hierarchy, each level encompasses all of the levels below. For example, a student who holds the fifth conception of learning may still see learning as involving memorization and the acquisition of information, but acquires the information for the purpose of understanding the world in a different way.

The first three of these conceptions are usually described as quantitative. Essentially, they relate to knowing more and are concerned with acquiring isolated facts, skills or procedures. Generally this learning involves lower level cognitive processes such as rote learning or repetition. The last three conceptions are described as qualitative. They relate to understanding and are concerned with understanding the meaning of information and relating new information to what is already known. Generally this learning involves higher level cognitive processes, such as critical analysis and evaluation.

How students approach their learning

Students generally tackle new learning tasks in the same way they tackled previous learning tasks, described as their ‘approach to learning’ (Biggs, 1987). The approach adopted depends on the students’ goals, motives and strategies as well as their interpretation or perception of the demands and requirements of the learning task. Three different approaches have been identified to describe the ways in which students approach their learning: surface, deep and achieving.

Surface approach

The surface approach to learning is based on a principle or intention that is external or extrinsic to the real purpose of the task. This means that the learner’s intention is not to understand or learn the information in any lasting way but only to give the impression that learning has taken place, often to obtain marks or complete the task. The strategy based on this approach is to ‘satisfice’, which involves meeting the task demands with as little time and effort as possible (Biggs, 1993a). Students memorize the subject material as isolated items, without developing any significant understanding of it. What they learn is unlikely to be transferred to new situations and is easily forgotten (Biggs and Moore, 1993). Students who hold quantitative conceptions of learning typically adopt a surface approach when faced with a learning task (Biggs and Moore, 1993; Marton and Säljö, 1984).

Deep approach

The deep approach to learning is based on the principle or intention of engaging in the task on its own terms so that maximum meaning is extracted from it (Biggs, 1993a). The strategies based on this approach vary, but all involve working with the information at high cognitive levels, identifying main ideas and looking for themes or unifying principles. These involve students in the transformation and restructuring of their knowledge to enable them to understand and interpret the material, and to view it from more than one perspective (Biggs, 1987). These students typically achieve higher grades and retain their understanding for a longer time than students who adopt a surface approach (Trigwell and Prosser, 1991; Watkins and Hattie, 1985). Students who hold qualitative conceptions of learning typically adopt a deep approach when faced with a learning task (Biggs and Moore, 1993; Marton and Säljö, 1984).

Achieving approach

The achieving approach to learning is similar to the surface approach because the intention is external to the real purpose of the task (Biggs, 1987). The intention is to achieve high marks for their own sake, not because high marks indicate high levels of learning. The strategies used by students adopting this approach will vary according to the requirements of task. If the reproduction of information is required to earn high marks, the student will use reproduction and recall strategies. If engagement in the task is required to achieve high marks, then the student will use strategies in the same way as students who adopt a deep approach to their learning. The important difference is that students with an achieving approach will employ whatever strategies are seen as necessary to achieve high marks.

These students use a number of organizational strategies to increase their efficiency: for example, their notes are usually neat and well organized, they plan and use study schedules, and they meet assignment and study deadlines (Biggs and Moore, 1993). In itself the use of these strategies is not wrong, and many students would benefit from better organization and the use of conventional study strategies. The problem is that students who adopt an achieving approach use these strategies only to achieve high marks; they are unlikely to engage in class learning activities for the sake of learning. The challenge for teachers is to ensure that in order for these students to achieve high marks, learning and assessment tasks require them to adopt the strategies used by students with a deep learning approach.

It is important to recognize that it is not the particular strategies that are used to learn that indicate the approach or conception of learning, but the purpose or intention of the learner in using them. For example, it can not be assumed that a student who is actively memorizing information has a surface approach to learning. The student may be memorizing in order to be able to remember details that will make it possible to think about the ideas and work with them.

How university teachers view their teaching: conceptions of teaching

Just as students hold beliefs about learning that affect the way they go about their learning, so teachers hold beliefs about the nature of teaching which affect the way they go about their teaching. Samuelowicz and Bain (1992) identified five conceptions of teaching held by university teachers. These are:

1. Imparting information. Teaching is seen as a teacher-centred activity which involves imparting the information or knowledge which makes up the subject matter in a one-way process from the teacher to the student. The teacher’s aim is for students to know more as a result of the teaching. The teacher’s responsibility is to provide the information, the framework and the appropriate examples.

2. Transmission of knowledge and attitudes to knowledge, within the framework of an academic discipline. Teaching is seen as a teacher-centred activity with the emphasis on developing the competence of the students so they can deal with the subject matter and apply the concepts. The teacher’s aim is for students to know more and be competent users of the knowledge received from the teacher. The teacher’s responsibility is to provide the conceptual framework of the subject so that students can readily acquire it.

3. Facilitating understanding. Teaching is seen as a teacher-centred activity with the emphasis on getting students to understand the information so they can apply this to new problems both in and outside the discipline. The teacher’s aim is for students to be able to apply their knowledge and understanding in new circumstances. The teacher’s responsibility is to make this understanding possible by pitching explanations at the right level.

4. Activity aimed at changing students’ conceptions or understanding of the world. Teaching is seen as a cooperative activity, with the student as the less experienced learner. The teacher’s aim is to change students’ naive understandings so that they become more like experts, within the conceptual framework of the discipline. The teacher’s responsibility is to involve the students actively in their own learning by using a variety of teaching strategies and methods to achieve that end.

5. Supporting student learning. Teaching is seen as a student-centred activity in which students are responsible for their learning and the content of that learning. The teacher’s aim is to encourage and sustain the students’ own interests. The teacher’s responsibility is to help plan, monitor and provide feedback on students’ work as well as provide conceptual guidance. This conception usually applies at the postgraduate level.

These conceptions are seen as increasing in sophistication, with each conception being qualitatively different to the one preceding it. Unlike the conceptions of learning, they are not considered hierarchical but are ordered on a continuum (Samuelowicz and Bain, 1992). For example, a teacher who holds the highest level conception of teaching as supporting student learning does not also hold the lowest level conception of imparting information.

The first three conceptions of teaching are essentially quantitative. The main focus of teaching is to increase students’ knowledge. Teaching involves the transmission of the knowledge or subject matter that originates from an external source (Biggs and Moore, 1993). The teacher is seen as central to the learning process, controlling what is learned, when it is learned and how it is learned.

The final two conceptions of teaching are essentially qualitative. The main focus of teaching is to change the way students see and use the knowledge they have. Teaching involves the facilitation of learning that engages both the teacher and student in a cooperative activity in order to develop students’ understanding and ways of interpreting the world.

How teachers approach the...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Halftitle
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Foreword, John Biggs
• Series Editor’s, John Stephenson
• Acknowledgements
• Overview
• PART 1. Learning and teaching at university
• PART 2. Learning and teaching strategies
• PART 3. Teaching learning strategies in context
• References
• Index