Teaching Discipline-Specific Literacies in Grades 6-12

Preparing Students for College, Career, and Workforce Demands

Vicky I. Zygouris-Coe

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781135102425
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Éducation
• Subtopic: Méthodes pédagogiques pour la lecture

Comprehensive, timely, and relevant, this text offers an approach to discipline-specific literacy instruction that is aligned with the Common Core State Standards and the needs of teachers, students, and secondary schools across the nation.

It is essential that teachers know how to provide instruction that both develops content and literacy knowledge and skills, and aims at reducing student achievement gaps. Building on the research-supported premise that discipline-specific reading instruction is key to achieving these goals, this text provides practical guidance and strategies for prospective and practicing content area teachers (and other educators) on how to prepare all students to succeed in college and the workforce.

Pedagogical features in each chapter engage readers in digging deeper and in applying the ideas and strategies presented in their own contexts:

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• Classroom Life (real 6-12 classroom scenarios and interviews with content-area teachers)
• Common Core State Standards Connections
• College, Career, and Workforce Connections
• Applying Discipline-Specific Literacies
• Think Like an Expert ("habits of thinking and learning" specific to each discipline)
• Digital Literacies
• Differentiating Instruction
• Reflect and Apply Questions
• Extending Learning Activities

The Companion Website includes:

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• Lesson plan resources
• Annotated links to video files
• Annotated links to additional resources and information
• Glossary/Flashcards
• For Instructors: All images and figures used in the text provided in an easily downloadable format
• For Instructors: PowerPoint lecture slides

one

Preparing Students for Today and Tomorrow

A world-class education is the single most important factor in determining not just whether our kids can compete for the best jobs but whether America can out-compete countries around the world. America’s business leaders understand that when it comes to education, we need to up our game. That’s why we’re working together to put an outstanding education within reach for every child.

–President Barack Obama, July 18, 2011

Chapter Highlights

• The evolving definition of the concept of literacy in the 21st century.

• The state of US adolescent literacy.

• The Common Core State Standards and college, career, and workforce readiness.

• Characteristics of exemplary secondary schools.

• Preparing students for college, career, and workforce success.

• The importance of the teacher’s role in an era of new educational standards.

Classroom Life

Ms. Morrison teaches Earth Science for 9th graders in a small urban-city school. The lesson for the day includes a lab about the use of the process of condensation to produce ethanol, an alternative fuel source. There are 24 students in the class but five students are missing. This means Ms. Morrison will have to figure out how those students will make this lab up. Students have been prepped for three days for the lab and have been working in groups to prepare for it. Students should have spent time researching on the Internet about the topic, identifying advantages, challenges, and cause and effect relationships, and collecting information from diverse sources on the topic. In addition, they should have reviewed pertinent vocabulary, studied up on the equipment that they will use, should have created a data chart, and have pre-read the procedure for understanding. And yet on lab day, students cannot set up the equipment correctly and do not understand the vocabulary when Ms. Morrison asks them questions in order to help. Some of the students do not have their data tables and some have not used rulers to make their tables neat as instructed. When solicited, students do not understand the purpose of the lab or for that matter, the purpose of the equipment they are using. Some students do not understand the concept of units. One student has his hands in the aquarium trying to catch the fish when Ms. Morrison is busy working with another group. The room is somewhat loud and many students are off task. Students do not seem to understand the purpose of the lab and are proceeding incorrectly. The 50 minutes goes by quickly and only two-thirds of the students finish and have data as they walk out the door. Ms. Morrison is exhausted but has four minutes to set up for the next group coming in. (Dr. Carmen M. Woodhall, Teaching Assistant Professor in Science Education, East Carolina University, North Carolina).

College and Career Readiness

College and career readiness in high school is not a recent focus. What makes it a new initiative is the idea that “all students should be capable of pursuing formal learning opportunities beyond high school” (Conley, 2010, p. 1). Reports have shown that postsecondary education readiness is not a focal goal of the typical high school (ACT, 2006, 2010, 2011, 2012; Baker, Clay, & Gratama, 2005; Strong American Schools, 2008; Texas Association of School Boards, 2009). College and career readiness can be defined as success—without remediation—in credit-bearing general education courses or a two-year certificate program. Success is defined as being able to progress successfully in a chosen program (ACT, 2011; Conley, 2010).

Being college ready means being prepared in the four dimensions of college readiness necessary to succeed in entry-level general education courses. The four dimensions are: (1) Key content knowledge (key foundational content and big ideas from core subjects); (2) Key cognitive strategies (problem formulation, analysis, research, interpretation, communication, precision, and accuracy, problem solving, and reasoning); (3) Academic behaviors (self-management, time management, and study skills, self-awareness, and persistence); and, (4) Contextual skills and awareness (admissions requirements, college) (Conley, 2009; National Research Council, 2013).

Key content knowledge refers to knowledge of actual information, key concepts and terminology, organizing concepts, and making connections among ideas. Key cognitive strategies are discipline-specific ways of thinking that allow students to apply what they know and are learning to achieve a goal. In addition, students need to know how to identify a problem, conduct independent research, interpret conflicting views of a phenomenon under study, and express themselves effectively in speech and in writing. To be college ready, students need to be able to set goals, work independently and collaboratively, manage their time, and persevere with complex tasks. Lastly, students need to be knowledgeable about the process of selecting a college, locating and applying for financial aid, and working with a diverse group of people (professors, peers, others) when they get there (Conley, 2010). In other words, college readiness implies college knowledge owned by a learner who is prepared well in content, tools, processes, and skills for college success.

Often in secondary schools, emphasis is on broad content coverage that results in shallow understanding of it. There is lots of emphasis on procedural learning and test-taking skills. Although the content changes, the learning strategies often remain the same. As a result, students arrive in college and the workplace not knowing how the experts in each subject area read, think, or problem-solve complex issues in their field. Students need learner-centered methods, and problem-based and authentic learning opportunities that will allow them to collaborate on complex ideas and world problems.

Students in secondary grades need to develop “expertise” over time—that is, become “expert” thinkers not only in having good (and transferable) understanding of the subject matter, but also in knowing how to develop and use their knowledge at inner-disciplinary and intra-disciplinary levels. How do novices versus experts think? Are there any distinct characteristics, skills, and processes teachers can teach students to use and develop in secondary grades? Experts have developed content knowledge that affects what they notice, how they understand their subject matter, and how they organize, interpret, represent, and use information in their environment. They chunk information, they make connections between new and prior knowledge, are able to retrieve information with little effort, and generalize knowledge to new settings.

Novice thinkers often identify problems in terms of surface elements, do not think strategically about how to solve problems, do not consider connections between concepts, and use memorization to solve problems. On the other hand, expert thinkers are self-efficacious about solving problems, first seek to develop an understanding of the problem and apply principles to solve it, notice meaningful patterns of information, persevere with problem solving, review their approach in relation to the question at hand, and memorize only a few select key principles.

A college ready student should possess “deep understanding of and facility applying key foundational ideas and concepts from the core academic subjects” (Conley, 2010, p. 49) and should be able to “read with understanding a range of nonfiction publications and materials, using appropriate decoding and comprehension strategies to identify key points, note areas of question or confusion, remember key terminology, and understand the basic conclusions reached and points of view expressed” (Conley, 2010, p. 51). Do college and career readiness today require the same foundational knowledge and skills in reading and mathematics? The answer is “yes” according to ACT (2011). College and career ready students are more likely to enroll in college, stay in college, and graduate from college (Conley, 2010).

Workforce Readiness

Thomas Friedman, a journalist who wrote the book, The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century (2007), presents the flattening effects of globalization. People can communicate, collaborate, and compete from anywhere, to anywhere (Association for Career and Technical Education [ACTE], 2006). Industries and companies seek employees with higher levels of expertise. Several reports have identified a skills gap in employees; employers report that employees need more technical skills, reading, writing, communication, and employability skills (National Association of Manufacturers, 2005). As a result, there are several national efforts to develop a workforce readiness credential that will equip students with skills for any type of occupation (skilled or professional) and any level of education.

Career and technical education (CTE) provides literacy and numeracy learning that is relevant to real world work contexts. The Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) defines “technical literacy” as the ability to (1) apply academic knowledge and skills to a broad field of technical studies; (2) read, understand, and communicate in the technical field; (3) understand technical concepts and principles; and (4) use technology to complete projects in technical fields (SREB, 2003). The ability to think critically, problem-solve, collaborate, and apply academic knowledge and situational judgment are important skills for the US workforce and economy (ACTE, 2008). The economy and future of the nation require a “knowledge- and innovation-centered workforce” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2012, p. 2).

The reauthorization of the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education (CTE) Improvement Act of 2006 is the US’ largest investment in secondary and postsecondary, CTE. It aims to strengthen the academic achievement of CTE students and the link between secondary and postsecondary education.

If the students who dropped out of the [high school] class of 2001 had graduated, the nation’s economy would likely benefit from nearly $154 billion in additional income over the course of their lifetimes.

(Alliance for Excellent Education, 2012)

According to the 2006 report, The Silent Epidemic: Perspectives of High School Dropouts, nearly half of the high school dropouts said they left high school because their classes were not engaging or relevant to them (Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morrison, 2006). All students should have rigorous and relevant academic classes; CTE students will benefit from rigorous course work that is engaging and aligned with college expectations, career and technical education for in-demand occupations, applied learning, and support services (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2012).

In this book, I present you with a different perspective on literacy for the 21st century. This book will expand your knowledge about what literacy means for today’s and tomorrow’s learning and how you can best prepare your students for college, career, workforce, and lifelong learning. Throughout this book, I use the terms “discipline-specific literacy” and “disciplinary literacy” interchangeably. Disciplinary literacy involves the tasks and processes of reading, thinking, inquiring, speaking, writing, and communicating required for learning and developing discipline-appropriate content knowledge. Discipline-specific literacy, which I will examine in detail in Chapter 2, is literacy that reflects and addresses the structure, content and literacy demands, discourse, and habits of mind that are specific to each discipline.

College, Career, and Workforce Connections

• A variety of knowledge, skills, dispositions and behaviors, and educational, career, and civic engagement abilities are needed for all students to be ready for their endeavors beyond high school.

• Twenty-first century skills, such as critical thinking and problem solving, are best learned through rigorous academic programs that connect students’ college and career goals and aspirations. Students need to develop robust knowledge in core subjects and they also need to be better equipped to apply that knowledge to problem solve about real work issues.

• Students need to become accountable for their own learning (i.e., take responsibility, be ethical, and manage their goals, time, and money).

• Students need to take risks and be resilient in the face of failure. They need to learn how to get out of their comfort zones and collaborate with people from different disciplinary backgrounds as well as understand how to use real-time data to make decisions (Paul Jarley, Dean, Business Administration, University of Central Florida).

What is 21st Century Learning?

Twenty-first century learning involves enabling today’s students to be academically competent and competitive in global situations, productive citizens in society, effective in their workplace, and pursuers of learning and personal growth. It means that education must equip students with rigorous academic coursework, engage them in emerging technologies, and foster innovation and creativity. Twenty-first century learning is “learner-driven.” Twenty-first century learning means that students master content while at the same time producing, synthesizing, and evaluating information from multiple texts and other sources, and demonstrate academic, civic, and cultural integrity and responsibility.

Twenty-first century students must be able to read, write, think, listen, view, do math, and communicate knowledge in print and non-print forms but they must also demonstrate creativity, communication, and collaboration in digital and non-digital contexts. Twenty-first century learning requires mastery of content and skills; success in 21st century means knowing how to learn. Without deep understanding of content and possession of learning skills, students will resort to memorization and surface-type learning that might result in passing the chapter test but will not result in transferable learning.

Technology today allows for 24/7 access to information, social interactions, production, and dissemination of digital content. Although 21st century learning is not just about technology and digital media, students need to have mastery of core academic subjects, and also need to know how to use essential learning, life, and work tools in the 21st century. Twenty-first century learners must possess strong critical thinking, interpersonal communication, and collaboration skills, in order to succeed and continue to learn in a highly networked and complex world.

Success in 21s...