Understanding the Development of Inclusive Schools

Mel Ainscow

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2002
• eBook ISBN: 9781135711771
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

The current emphasis on individualised intervention programmes for students with special needs may not only be impractical, but also undesirable. This book compares and contrasts special needs approaches with school effectiveness strategies. The author sets out theories about inclusive schooling that arise out of a detailed scrutiny of practice. The link between theory and practice will be welcomed by many practitioners. With extensive examples from the field to illustrate Ainscow's ideas, this is an eminently accessible text.

Chapter 1
Reaching Out to All Learners

The city where I work, Manchester, like many others around the world, is a city of diversity. For decades it has attracted people from all over the world. So much so that now it is possible to hear many different languages on our streets, eat wonderfully exotic dishes, listen to endless different kinds of music and buy fashions that reflect many cultures. In these and many other ways ‘new’ Mancunians have enriched the life of our community. Having said that, it would be foolish to ignore the tensions that all of this has created at certain times. Learning how to live with difference can be difficult. When we do so, however, it opens up rich possibilities that might otherwise be missed.

It was for reasons such as this that I have chosen to call this introductory chapter ‘Reaching Out to All Learners’. In it I set out to stimulate and challenge those concerned with school effectiveness and improvement to consider how far their work really has taken account of the learning of all children. I also challenge those involved with what is currently referred to as special needs education to reconsider the roles they take. In this way I draw attention to the possibilities we can create for ourselves when we really do attempt to reach out to all learners.

The ideas that I explore and the suggestions I make in this book arise, in the main, as a result of reflections on the experience of working with teachers and schools over many years in this country and overseas. In particular, they have arisen from my involvement over the last ten years in two large-scale projects. The first of these was a school improvement project, ‘Improving the Quality of Education for All’ (IQEA), which involved a small team of university academics collaborating with English schools during what proved to be an unprecedented period of national educational reform. The experiences of this project led us to rethink many of our assumptions as to how school improvement can be achieved, noting in particular the way local histories and circumstances bear upon the improvement efforts of individual schools (Hopkins, Ainscow and West, 1994).

The second project was a UNESCO teacher education initiative to do with the development of more inclusive forms of schooling. This project, called ‘Special Needs in the Classroom’, originally involved research in eight countries (i.e. Canada, Chile, India, Jordan, Kenya, Malta, Spain and Zimbabwe), but subsequently led to dissemination activities of various kinds in over fifty countries (Ainscow, 1994). During the early phases it was assumed that materials and methods would be developed that could be distributed in a straightforward way for use in different parts of the world. Gradually, those of us leading the project came to realize, as others involved in international development activities in education have done (e.g. Fuller and Clark, 1994), that schooling is so closely tied into local conditions and cultures that the importation of practices from elsewhere is fraught with difficulties. In other words, learning from other people, particularly those who live their lives in far away places, is by no means straightforward!

The experiences of these two initiatives has had major implications for the development of my own thinking and practice. In particular, they have led me to reflect on how we can develop understandings that will be useful in encouraging the development of schools that will be successful in fostering the participation and learning of all pupils within a community. This raises questions such as, how do we make use of the diversity of experience and knowledge that exists within any given context to support the improvement of educational arrangements? Indeed, can we learn from the experience of others in ways that can support the development of practice? If so, what is the nature of the learning that might occur?

Keeping these questions in mind, in this book I use my own experiences to illustrate some ways in which an engagement with differences can stimulate our thinking about the issue of reaching out to all learners. In order to introduce the overall agenda for the book, in this first chapter I use vignettes based on observations made in schools and classrooms in various parts of the world in order to show how such experiences have stimulated a reconsideration of my thinking about practice in my own country. This leads me to argue that the power of comparison for the development of practice comes not from lifting approaches and moving them from place to place, but from using the stimulus of more exotic environments to reconsider thinking and practice in familiar settings (Delamont, 1992). It is about making what is strange familiar and what is familiar strange, as when seeing your own town in a new light when showing a visitor round. Features that are normally ignored become clearer, possibilities that have been overlooked are reconsidered, and things that have become taken for granted are subject to new scrutiny.

The shifts in my thinking that took place as a result of the two projects involved a reconceptualization of how some children come to be marginalized within, or even excluded from, schools. This, in turn, drew my attention to many possibilities for the development of schools that might easily have been overlooked. It also helped me to realize that a concern with local context had to be at the heart of any development activities, whether these are concerned with classrooms, schools or overall education systems. In this way I became aware of the importance of existing practice as the essential starting point for our efforts. Indeed, as my colleagues and I looked more closely at what was going on in the classrooms in which we worked we realized that very often much of the expertise that was needed in order to reach out to all learners was already there. Thus the strategy becomes less about importing ideas from elsewhere and more to do with finding ways of making better use of local knowledge. Put simply, our experience has been that teachers frequently know more than they use! The task of development, therefore, becomes essentially one of helping teachers, and those supporting them, to analyse their own practice as a basis for experimentation.

In what follows I illustrate what I have in mind by using stories from different parts of the world to show the potential of using local thinking and practice as a foundation for developing more inclusive schools. As I have already indicated, these accounts also demonstrate some ways in which we might learn from the experiences of others.

Vignette 1—China

A primary school classroom in Inner Mongolia. There are approximately 75 children, sitting in rows of desks packed into a long, rather bleak looking room. The teacher stands at one end of the room on a narrow stage in front of a blackboard. In the back row of the classroom there are some pupils who look older than the rest. In fact, these are children who either started school later than the rest or, in some instances, are resitting the grade having failed in the previous year. Lessons are 40 minutes long and, although each is taught by a different teacher, mostly follow a common pattern. Typically this involves a process by which the teacher talks or reads and, frequently, uses questions to stimulate choral or individual responses from the class. Throughout the lesson the pace is fast and the engagement of pupils appears to be intense. Afterwards the teacher explains how she tries to help those who experience difficulties by directing many more questions to them and by encouraging their classmates to go over the lesson content with them during the breaktimes.

What, then, does an English observer make of such an experience? Does it suggest patterns of practice that might be relevant to teachers in my country where, despite much smaller classes, it is not uncommon to find groups of children whose participation in lessons is marginal to say the least? Why are these Chinese pupils so quiet and obedient throughout a day of lessons that appear so repetitive? It would be so easy to jump to simple conclusions that might appear to offer strategies that could be exported to other parts of the world. On the other hand there are so many other factors to consider. It is apparent, for example, that many other influences help to shape the events observed in this classroom. We are told that teachers are held in high esteem in Chinese society, although this is changing as a result of current economic reforms. It also seems that children are often under considerable pressure from their families to achieve success at school. Indeed in some parts of Asia there are signs in fast food restaurants which say ‘No studying’, presumably to discourage students from crowded home environments who are seeking space to pursue their schoolwork. Such community attitudes are but a part of a range of influences that help to shape the interactions that occur in local schools but which are difficult for the foreign visitor to determine.

Having said that, the Chinese story does point to the importance of teachers planning their lessons with all members of the class in mind. Here we bring into focus a central dilemma that confronts any teacher faced with their class. Put simply it is this: how do I work with the whole group and, at the same time, reach out to each member of the class as an individual? In the years since the right to educational opportunity was extended to all members of the community in many Western countries, it has become increasingly apparent that traditional forms of schooling are no longer adequate for the task. Faced with increased diversity, including the presence of pupils whose cultural experience or even language may be different from their own, and others who may find difficulties in learning within conventional arrangements, teachers have had to think about how they should respond.

Broadly speaking there seem to be three options:

• continue to maintain the status quo in the belief that those members of the class who do not respond have some problem that prevents their participation;
• make compromises by reducing expectations in the belief that some pupils will simply never be able to achieve traditional standards; and
• seek to develop new teaching responses that can stimulate and support the participation of all class members.

The problem with the first option, maintaining the status quo, is that it is likely to lead to conflict with some pupils and, possibly, their parents. It may also damage the working atmosphere for everybody, thus making life more stressful for the teacher. The second option, making compromises, involves a reduction in standards not least for some pupils who may already be vulnerable in our increasingly competitive society. The third option, demanding that it is, has the potential to bring about improvements that can enhance the learning of all pupils whilst at the same time reaching out to those who otherwise have been marginalized.

So, what kinds of practices might help teachers to ‘reach out’ to all members of the class? How might teachers develop their practice in order to make it more inclusive? These are major questions to be considered in subsequent chapters. At this stage a few introductory remarks will illustrate the directions I shall be taking. We have noticed that teachers who appear to be effective in providing experiences that facilitate the participation of all members of the class, whilst they each have their own style of working, do pay attention to certain key aspects of classroom life. First of all they seem to recognize that the initial stages of any lesson or activity are particularly important if pupils are to be helped to understand the purpose and meaning of what is to occur. Specifically, they aim to help their pupils to recall previous experiences and knowledge to which new learning can be connected. As one Italian teacher put it, ‘I have to warm the class up—I want hot learners not cold learners’.

It is noticeable, too, the way that some teachers use available resources in order to stimulate and support participation. Most significantly they seem to be aware that the two most important resources for learning are themselves and their pupils. The idea of using the potential of pupils as a resource to one another seems to be a particularly powerful strategy but, regrettably, in some classrooms it is one that is largely overlooked. Certainly a striking feature of lessons that encourage participation is the way in which pupils are often asked to think aloud, sometimes with the class as a whole as a result of the teacher’s sensitive questioning, or with their classmates in well managed small group situations. All of this provides opportunities for pupils to clarify their own ideas as they ‘think aloud’, whilst, at the same time, enabling members of the class to stimulate and support one another’s learning.

It has taken me a long time to appreciate that existing practice represents the best starting point for development activities, not least because of my previous experience and training in the field of special education. It took me many years to recognize that the ways in which earlier attempts to develop integrated arrangements for pupils said to have special needs had often, unintentionally, undermined our efforts. As we tried to integrate such pupils into mainstream schools, we imported practices derived from earlier experience in special provision. What we learned was that many of these approaches were simply not feasible in primary and secondary schools. Here I am thinking, in particular, of the individualized responses, based on careful assessments and systematic programmes of interventions, that have been the predominant orientation within the special needs world. For many years this was very much the orientation that shaped my own work (e.g. Ainscow and Tweddle, 1979 and 1984). Gradually, however, experience has taught me that such approaches do not fit with the ways in which mainstream teachers plan and go about their work. For all sorts of sensible and understandable reasons the planning flame of such teachers has to be that of the whole class. Apart from any other considerations, the sheer numbers of children in the class and the intensity of the teacher’s day makes this inevitable.

Consequently, when integration efforts are dependent upon the importation of practices from special education they seem almost certain to lead to difficulties. Indeed they are likely to lead to yet new forms of segregation, albeit within the mainstream settings (Fulcher, 1989), through the use of what Slee (1996) calls ‘dividing practices’. For example, in England we have seen the proliferation of largely untrained classroom assistants who work with some of the most vulnerable children and their individual programmes in mainstream schools. When such support is withdrawn, teachers feel that they can no longer cope. Meanwhile, the legal requirement for individualized education plans has encouraged colleagues in some schools to feel that even more children will require such responses, thus creating massive budget problems in many parts of the country.

The gradual recognition that schools for all will not be achieved by transplanting special education thinking and practice into mainstream contexts has opened my mind to many new possibilities that I had previously failed to recognize. Many of these relate to the need to move from the individualized planning frame, referred to above, to a perspective that emphasizes a concern for and an engagement with the whole class. Thus as one teacher explained, what is needed are strategies that personalize learning rather than individualize the lesson. An understanding of what these might involve can be gained from the study of practice, particularly the practice of class teachers in primary schools and subject teachers in secondary schools. As my awareness of the value of such studies has developed, so my interest in observing and trying to understand practice has grown. Put simply, I am arguing that a scrutiny of the practice of what we sometimes call ‘ordinary teachers’ provides the best starting point for understanding how classrooms can be made more inclusive.

Vignette 2—Ghana

A primary school in a rural district in West Africa. Here class sizes are much more manageable than those observed in the Chinese school. Typically there are 50 or so children in each class. On the other hand, the physical resources are noticeably poorer. Many of the children arrive in the morning carrying stools on their heads. It seems that for these children this is the equivalent of children in the West bringing a pen and a ruler from home. Apparently each evening the stools are taken home so that they can be used for domestic purposes. It may also be that some families are reluctant to leave them in school where they might be stolen, since the classrooms are open, having few walls. One of the teachers explains that his biggest problem is the lack of textbooks. In fact, for most lessons he only has one copy of the book and so frequently he has to write the text on the blackboard.

A surprising feature of the school from an English perspective is the presence of a number of pupils who are noticeably disabled. Further inquiries confirm that the headteacher assumes that it is his responsibility to admit all children in the district. ‘Where else would they go?’, he remarks. Apparently such examples of what Miles (1989) refers to as ‘casual integration’ can be found in a number of so-called developing countries, particularly in rural districts. Indeed they raise the question, is it significant, in some way, that it is a rural environment? A parent in Queensland, Australia, explained recently how she had found it necessary to move out of the city to find a school that would welcome her disabled daughter. Once again, however, there is the danger of jumping to simplistic conclusions and in so doing, perhaps, ignoring other factors that may well be influential in the context of Ghana? Can foreign visitors be sure of the conclusions they draw as they interpret their observations in the light of their previous experiences and existing frames of reference? Writing about the development of special education in Africa generally, Kisanji (1993) explains that there is evidence that the nature of provision is influenced by community perceptions of disabled children. He notes, for example, that in some countries disability is seen to arise as a result of the influence of factors such as witchcraft, curses or punishment from God, and anger of ancestral spirits. This being the case, it may be that some children will be hidden away from sight by the family in order to avoid feelings of shame.

It seems then that attempts to reach out to all learners will be influenced by the ways in which student differences are perceived. At the risk of oversimplifying what is undoubtedly a complicated issue, two possibilities come to mind. On the one hand differences may be seen in a normative way. This means that students are defined in terms of certain taken-for-granted criteria of normality, against which some come to be seen as being abnormal. Within such an orientation those who do not fit into existing arrangements are seen as needing attention elsewhere or, at least, assimilation into the status quo. Alternatively, perceptions may be guided by a view that all students are unique, with their own experiences, interests and aptitudes. Associate...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Studies in Inclusive Education Series
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• List of Figures
• List of Acronyms
• Acknowledgment
• Series Editor’s Preface
• Preface
• Chapter 1: Reaching Out to All Learners
• Chapter 2: Learning from Experience
• Chapter 3: Collaborative Inquiry
• Chapter 4: Moving Classrooms
• Chapter 5: Developing Practice
• Chapter 6: Moving Schools
• Chapter 7: Developing Schools for All
• Chapter 8: Supporting School and Teacher Development
• Chapter 9: The Development of Inclusive Education Systems
• Chapter 10: Some Final Reflections
• References