A society’s social organisations and functions tend to change drastically as that society changes. If this were not the case, an old society would see no change at all, and no new societies would come into being. Accordingly, if one decides to study a particular society, they need to properly understand the preceding society in terms of social fabric, collapse and transformation into a new social structure. Before we study a society, it is appropriate to first research the one that predated it, which helps us to avoid mistakes in our investigation.
This is especially true when we study ancient social history. Due to fuzzy details in literature and inadequate historical data, we can never truly understand the development and collapse of a society if we are merely focussing on a single period and considering neither the former nor the later dynasties. History progresses in a causal chain, with one dynasty closely following another. One can definitely examine a specific period from that long chain, but it would be imprudent to ignore both the previous and the subsequent periods of history.
This methodology also applies to the study of ancient Chinese feudal society. Therefore, close attention should be paid to the whole process of its development, completion and collapse. In this way, we can avoid quite a few mistakes and make our conclusions solid and convincing.
Animal husbandry and agricultural economy
A feudal society with a land system at its core determined the rights and obligations of different social classes. It would be impossible for a land system to be established without the popularisation of crop planting, nor could a feudal society have existed before this land system’s foundation.
Studying the literature of ancient Chinese history, one may be convinced that agriculture before the Zhou (周) Dynasty (1046 B.C.–249 B.C.) had not developed fully enough to become the major mode of production. However, the Shang (商) Dynasty (also called the Yin (殷) Dynasty or the Yin-Shang Dynasty, about 1600 B.C.–1046 B.C.) witnessed a transformation of production from animal husbandry to the initial stage of agriculture.
During the Shang Dynasty, people would breed large herds of cattle and sheep. According to Characters from Yin Ruins (《殷墟书契》), the number of cattle and sheep used for sacrifices reached up to three hundred.1 In addition, many oxen and ram horns, as well as pottery pieces featuring designs of ox heads, were found among the oracle bones unearthed in Henan (河南) Province2; this adequately proves that livestock were bred during the Yin Dynasty.
In an age when animal husbandry was the main mode of production, beef and mutton were the most important foods, while food taken from other animals and plants functioned as supplements. Most people were engaged in
livestock breeding, with some fishing and hunting on the side. The word “fishing” was repeated plenty of times in
Characters from Yin Ruins,
3 in which numerous words resemble animals. For example, the modern Chinese character “彘” (zhì, pig) used to take the forms of
,
,
and so on in oracle bones, which resemble an arrow shooting a pig. The simplified character “罗” (luó, net), with forms such as
,
,
and
, looks like a bird being caught with a net. The character
, written as “罘” (fú, net) in modern Chinese, has its ancient forms in
and
, which resembles an elk’s head trapped in a net. The traditional Chinese character of “羅” (luó, net), with its hieroglyphs as
,
,
and
, looks like a pig covered with a net. “罟” (gǔ, fishing net) in oracle bones is
,
,
and
, which looks like a rabbit caught in a net. “率” (shuài, net) has forms such as
,
which also looks like a bird caught in a net. “阱” (jǐng, trap) with forms like
,
,
,
,
,
, and
, resembles a beast in a trap.
4 In addition, in the divination found on oracle bones, hunters are mentioned 186 times, while fishers are mentioned 11 times.
5 Clearly, hunting and fishing were practiced at this time, even if not to the same extent as livestock breeding.
Attention should be paid to the fact that the division of economic development stages is not always clear-cut. In an era which had animal husbandry as the main production mode, fishing and hunting remained part of the economy, and a primitive form of agriculture was also gradually developing. Hence, one should not simply view the Shang Dynasty as a period of animal husbandry. In truth, people in the Shang Dynasty were learning basic skills of planting crops. Agriculture had almost developed into its initial stage by the end of the Yin Dynasty. Such Chinese words as “农” (nóng, farming),6 “禾” (hé, millet), “黍” (shǔ, broom corn millet), “米” (mǐ, rice) and “麦” (mài, wheat or barley)7 in Characters from Yin Ruins prove that these crops had been widely cultivated by that time.
Farmers only had access to simple farming tools, such as hoes. The Chinese character “以” (yǐ, to use), written in oracle bones as
,
,
and so on, is in the shape of these primitive hoes.
8 “男” (nán, male), written as
,
and
, is like a man working with a hoe on the farm. “劦” (xié, cooperation) originates from hieroglyphs such as
,
,
,
,
,
,
and
, as if three farmers are hoeing together.
9 The hoe they used at this time was a very primitive stick with a sharp, curved head.
Farmers at the time had no knowledge of fertilisation or irrigation for their farming was completely dependent on rainwater. Thus, climate conditions played a crucial role in their cultivation, and rainfall was closely associated with harvests. In the divination found on oracle bones, there are 34 references to bumper harvest years and 102 to weather conditions,10 indicating that people placed much emphasis on the power of nature. They could not control nature, nor could they foresee changes in it, so they relied upon divination through tortoise shells.
Guo Moruo (郭沫若, 1892–1978), an archaeologist and expert in palaeography, stated with certainty, “The end of the Yin Dynasty saw the prosperity of animal husbandry and the birth of agriculture.” He cited evidence that: (1) “Pan Geng (盘庚, the king of the Yin Dynasty) who seldom settled down had moved his capital for five times up to now,” and (2) Historical texts like History of the Northern Zhou Dynasty and The Book of Songs offered an account of nomadic pastoralism as the beginning of agriculture.11 Guo’s conclusion is basically consistent with the above-mentioned analysis. It is therefore fair to conclude that primitive agriculture started in the late Yin Dynasty.
As farmers gained more and more experience, their ability to adapt to the natural environment increased little by little. They gradually became dissatisfied with the old mode of production and soon replaced it with a new and more efficient one.
At first, nomadic people relied on herding for a living. Over time, however, they came to know more about cultivation, which had yet to become their main mode of production. More often than not, they sent women and slaves to grow crops. Eventually, they found animal husbandry economy far inferior to agriculture, which proved to bring more benefits. The same piece of land used for planting crops would produce more food and support more people than it would when used for herding. More importantly, the land could be tilled for many generations to come. Great changes thus began to take place in the economic arena.
As a result, agriculture, once considered a secondary business, gained more attention, and farming became a primary occupation. Gradually, men gave up their nomadic lives, settled down and set their minds to toiling on land. The importance of cattle and sheep herding dwindled, with only a small part of the working population willing to do it.
The establishment of the Zhou Dynasty marked the beginning of agriculture as an economic pillar. King Wu (武) of Zhou exhorted people living in the area that had once been under the control of the Shang Dynasty, “My people, you should be loyal to your homeland, make every effort to grow your crops, and support your parents and elder brothers with great diligence.”12 Duke Dan of Zhou (周公旦) said:
Alas, a noble had better not seek leisure or pleasure. Only after he knows the hardship in farming can he understand his people. Thus he realises what his people live on. Those evil men were different. They never reall...
