Contemporary Research in Music Learning Across the Lifespan

Music Education and Human Development

Jennifer Bugos

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9780367877576
• eBook ISBN: 9781317231509
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Media & Performing Arts
• Subtopic: Education Theory & Practice

This book examines contemporary issues in music teaching and learning throughout the lifespan, illuminating an emerging nexus of trends shaping modern research in music education. In the past, most music learning opportunities and research were focused upon the pre-adult population. Yet, music education occurs throughout the lifespan, from birth until death, emerging not only through traditional formal ensembles and courses, but increasingly through informal settings as well. This book challenges previous assumptions in music education and offers theoretical perspectives that can guide contemporary research and practice. Exploring music teaching and learning practices through the lens of human development, sections highlight recent research on topics that shape music learning trajectories. Themes uniting the book include human development, assessment strategies, technological applications, professional practices, and cultural understanding. The volume deconstructs and reformulates performance ensembles to foster mutually rewarding collaborations across miles and generations. It develops new measures and strategies for assessment practices for professionals as well as frameworks for guiding students to employ effective strategies for self-assessment. Supplemental critical thinking questions focus the reader on research applications and provide insight into future research topics. This volume joining established experts and emerging scholars at the forefront of this multifaceted frontier is essential reading for educators, researchers, and scholars, who will make the promises of the 21st century a reality in music education. It will be of interest to a range of fields including music therapy, lifelong learning, adult learning, human development, community music, psychology of music, and research design.

Part I
Theoretical Perspectives in Music Learning Across the Lifespan

1 Development in Music Education

A Lifelong Perspective

Jennifer A. Bugos

Intellectual growth should commence at birth and cease only at death.

—Albert Einstein

There is in every child at every stage a new miracle of vigorous unfolding.

—Erik Erikson

Music education has focused predominantly upon pre-adult populations, neglecting adulthood. With an ever-increasing aging population worldwide, there is a need to include all stages of adulthood to develop a perspective that connects music learning over the course of the lifespan. A lifespan perspective refers to the multifaceted view that includes the acceptance of change that naturally occurs in a nonlinear fashion (Berger, 2008). To define development from a lifespan perspective, we must consider: (a) What is development? (b) What are some of the major theoretical viewpoints that contribute to our understanding of musical learning at different stages of development? (c) Why are developmental stages important in a lifelong perspective of music education? (d) How does one experience music learning in a lifelong perspective? and (e) What kinds of music programs are necessary to facilitate musical development across the lifespan? Once the theoretical perspective is developed, I discuss how this perspective can empower music educators through assessment strategies, technological applications, professional practices, and cultural understanding.

Development

Human development is the “miracle of vigorous unfolding,” a metaphor for continued evolution beyond the childhood years, a time period once viewed as the only window or opportunity for new learning. Development encompasses changes throughout the lifespan necessitating human growth in areas including physical, emotional, intellectual, and social. Although individuals exhibit growth differently throughout the lifespan, the concepts of growth, change, and life-course stages characterize development. According to Rutter and Rutter, development refers to the, “systematic, organized, intra-individual change that is clearly associated with generally expectable age-related progressions and which is carried forward in some way that has implications for a person’s pattern or level of functioning at some later time” (1992, p. 64). Future behavioral patterns are dependent upon successful progressions through developmental stages. As learners progress through differential stages of development, learning is the change that occurs throughout the life-course.

Education in any domain, including music, requires knowledge of processes, situations, and experiences that differentiate learners at various life stages. Cognitive processes are different for adults when compared with those of young children. For instance, adults are able to process complex abstractions, unlike young children. Young children are able to coordinate bimanual motor movements easier than adults. Although there is a certain degree of inter-individual variability, the context for music learning changes with age in motivations, attitudes, and performance requirements. Children have different opportunities than adults to enroll in music classes. For instance, enrollment in music programs is often self-motivated by adult learners, but influenced by caregivers for young children. In addition, there is a changing social context that may inspire the types of programs offered. The types of programs accessed by child-based populations focus upon general music, while programs for adolescent and adult learners include a focus on music performance. Accumulated experiences shape motivations and attitudes toward music learning. Adults bring a wealth of prior experiences to the music classroom, whereas children are building upon limited previous experiences. Educators with the ability to adapt materials, strategies, and approaches to populations across the lifespan will be equipped with the tools necessary to promote lifelong learning in music education.

Theoretical Viewpoints

Theoretical viewpoints explored as they relate to music learning include the Psychosocial Stages of Development (Erik Erikson), Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura), Activity Theory (Yrjö Engeström), and Discipline-Based Arts Theory (Elliot Eisner). Erik Erikson, a developmental psychologist, posed nine sequential stages of psychosocial development that describe the impact of social experiences on personality development and learning throughout the lifespan (1997). Positive or negative outcomes in development may be linked to one’s ability to successfully progress through each of these stages. Applications of Erikson’s stages in musical development of performers are mentioned in many texts; however, Steve Kelly applies Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory to the development of the music educator. Music educators can evaluate their own growth based upon the successful growth and progression to differential stages. Music educators do not simply begin the journey to become a music teacher during their collegiate years. Instead the journey is ongoing. Understanding the pathway to music educator development may help us determine the experiences necessary to mentor and nurture strong music educators in the future.

Music learning is also influenced by motivation, self-regulation, and self-efficacy. These theoretical principles are intertwined in Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory of Self-Regulation (1991). Through the lens of Social Cognitive Theory, Rebecca Kasang explores the importance of self-efficacy in music teaching and learning outcomes. Music educators need to consider the importance of developing musical self-efficacy in learners of all ages while maintaining high standards. After students have developed self-efficacy, they must be able to self-regulate. Bandura states, “Self-regulation also encompasses the self-efficacy mechanism, which plays a central role in the exercise of personal agency by its strong impact on thought, affect, motivation, and action” (p. 248). Action in music education can refer to the way a student practices his or her instrument. Kim Mieder’s chapter focuses on the role of developing curriculum that fosters self-regulation in adolescent instrumentalists. Music educators neglect the importance of teaching students self-regulation skills in musical practice, spending precious rehearsal time on difficult passages without strategies to remedy musical challenges. Mieder’s chapter lends support to including practical music practice strategies for adolescent musicians. Many adolescent instrumentalists may participate in large ensembles without access to private instruction or directions for self-regulated practice. Music educators at all levels, particularly those at the secondary level, can influence self-regulated practice and enhance the performance of their ensemble. Development of self-regulated practice skills contributes to enhanced musical self-efficacy and a desire to pursue future music learning activities.

Music learning activities occur in diverse contexts, with differing perceptions among learners. Engeström’s Activity Theory (1999) considers Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (1978) in developing activities appropriate for learners based upon the level of challenge and context of the activity. Victoria Kinsella and Martin Fautley’s chapter considers how learner histories influence pedagogical practices in a case study of a group-based composition program in England. The authors provide historical perspective related to the basis for Activity Theory and relate Activity Theory to Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) as a lens from which to examine musical pedagogical practices, explore and develop curriculum, and foster future educational research.

Educational research has been considerably influenced by Elliot Eisner’s (1990) work focused on discipline-based arts education. Eisner believed that the arts invoke multidimensional responses that may be difficult to capture and are not fully explored through traditional research or fieldwork approaches. Exploring additional research methods may benefit the field of music education. Bernard Andrews’ chapter is based off of this premise as he details how brief focused inquiry may be a promising research technique for music educators. Brief focused inquiry employs techniques applicable to small-scale research studies but provides meaningful data from which to position larger research studies. For instance, focus groups can reveal perceptions of a novel arts education intervention prior to large-scale implementation. Brief focused inquiry also has the potential to bridge the gap from research-to-practice in music education. Dr. Sheelagh Chadwick’s chapter ties research-to-practice through action research conducted in Botswana. The application of action research empowers music educators as facilitators of change. In this research, educators serve as developers of curriculum rather than disempowered workers. Research methods such as these will shape future studies in music education and explore issues affecting lifelong learning in music education.

Human Development and a Lifelong Perspective of Music Education

Lifelong learning is a powerful continual processing of change with the capacity to bring about generative and transformative changes that confront previously held beliefs, empower future initiatives, provide new opportunities, and influence the future. Jarvis (2006) offers one of the most encompassing definitions of lifelong learning:

The combination of processes throughout a lifetime whereby the whole person- body (genetic, physical, and biological) and mind (knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, beliefs, and senses) experiences social situations, the perceived content of which is then transformed cognitively, emotively, or practically (or through any combination) and integrated into a person’s biography resulting in a continually changing (or more experienced) person. (p. 134)

Learning includes neurological changes influencing cognitive development. While the brain is most plastic during childhood, learning and experience continue to mold and shape it from birth until death (Porto, Fox, Tusch, Sorond, Mohammed, & Daffner, 2015). Neuroplasticity, modification of neurological structures based upon experiences, subserves critical mechanisms underlying learning, memory, and higher-order cognitive processes. Music learning engages higher-order cognitive processes at all stages of development. For instance, infants can distinguish rhythmic patterns of two’s and three’s as early as 6 months (Hannon & Trehub, 2005). However, ability to distinguish patterns and process musical information relies upon exposure.

Exposure to musical skills such as singing is essential during early childhood. Most children are more frequently exposed to recorded music than to live vocal models, which can shape their perception of vocal development. Very young children are affected by the time spent engaged in musical activities such as singing. Eugenia Costa-Giomi and Xiaoning Sun tabulated the time engaged in music activities in early childhood in a case study and found a very limited amount of time spent on active music-making activities such as singing compared to music listening. Catherine Ming Tu examined how preschool students in the home environment prefer opportunities to manipulate sounds via technological tools such as iPads during documented free-play sessions. These research studies provide context regarding music learning in home environments. Future research may help inform educators how home environments differ in music learning from other environments such as early childhood centers and non-formal learning environments.

Music learning opportunities during the school-age years become the foundation from which future experiences are viewed and appreciated. Lily Chen-Hafteck, Alda Oliveira, Zuraida Bastião, Angelita Brook, Elizabeth Andang’o, Arla Good, and Yue Xiao investigated the impact of learning songs from foreign cultures on cultural understanding and appreciation in elementary children from Brazil, Canada, China, and Kenya. Results of this large-scale study suggest a relationship between singing, cultural understanding, and racial attitude. Music educators can impact cultural understanding by providing information about countries represented in musical repertoire (i.e., customs and traditions).

In many school systems, music performance has become the focus at the expense of music learning. In some schools, educators are required to prepare elementary students for multiple music performances, consuming the time available for focused instruction of age-appropriate musical skills. Educators are often forced to teach repertoire that may not be vocally appropriate for the elementary child or contribute to teaching concepts and skills necessary for musical understanding. According to Jonathan Kladder’s chapter, elementary children are pressured to perform formally or informally at younger ages; consequently, research is beginning to uncover increases in performance anxiety during the elementary years. Anxiety can negatively impact a child’s willingness to participate in future music activities.

In some instances, learning to read music is associated with anxiety in children. Steve Oare, Elaine Bernstorf, and Selim Giray provide a chapter that assists music educators on reimagining literacy in a framework that has implications for music teaching at all levels. A framework that connects the National Standards in Music Education with Common Core can assist music educators in explaining and teaching literacy skills and assessing these skills.

Accountability is a primary issue in music education. Although interest in assessment strategies is beginning to grow, current assessment practices and strategies are limited in music education. Assessment of children’s creative works is a challenging task for many music educators. Patrick Cooper’s research suggests that teachers can serve as expert judges in assessing creative products in elementary students. He found that the Consensual Assessment Technique (Amabile, 1982) is widely applicable in elementary music students. At the secondary level, there is a need for diagnostic measures in motor skills and aural skills. Corin Overland’s research features examination of a Motor-Aural Synchronization Task in 180 student musicians. Performance on the Motor-Aural Synchronization Task was linked to previous musical experiences. Musical experiences can shape aural memory skills, which are important for success in music theory courses. In the psychological sciences, the N-Back Task is used to examine working memory by requiring the retention of visual sequences or aural sequences. In Jennifer Bugos’ chapter, application of the N-Back paradigm to harmonic musical sequences revealed significant d...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures and Tables
• Preface
• PART I Theoretical Perspectives in Music Learning Across the Lifespan
• PART II Music Instruction in Early Childhood and the Formative Years
• PART III Music Learning in Adolescence to Young Adulthood
• PART IV Middle Age and Older Adult Musical Engagement
• List of Contributors
• Index