International Social Work: Themes and Perspectives

Karen Lyons

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• eBook ISBN: 9781351926539
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Ciencias sociales
• Subtopic: Trabajo social

This book advocates the development of international social work, both as offering an important perspective on practice at local level and as a distinct form of cross-border and supra-national activity. The author argues that the effects of globalization and regional policies on the welfare sector have implications for the users of social services and community development programmes which require all social professionals to have a better understanding of these processes and consequences and of the international networks through which they themselves might operate. Some of the material used is of a comparative nature, for instance in relation to the education of social professionals or their relationship with the state or the family and examples are drawn from a wide range of countries. But there is also a thematic treatment of three phenomena which are seen to have significant international dimensions, that is, poverty, migration and disasters. The book considers the role of social professionals in relation to these themes and identifies greater scope for intervention in relation to a range of social problems at international levels.

1
Educating for the social professions – an international perspective

Introduction

Education for the social professions has ‘emerged’ in different forms at different times in different places, related to the shift from social and community work as voluntary activities or adjuncts to other professions, to an occupation for which education and agreement about principles and standards of practice are deemed necessary. Ideas about the forms of knowledge required, the nature and assessment of practice skills, and even sometimes the value base, vary widely and the content and form of the educational process can be seen as dynamic and sometimes contentious. However, some commonalities can be discerned.

There is an essentially interactive relationship between the nature of social work education and the organisation and practice of social work: education for the social professions has an important function both in preparing people for the realities of practice, and in helping them to question and shape those realities. Social work education plays an important role in the processes of defining and progressing the development of the profession, through research and knowledge creation, and of establishing and maintaining professional standards and credibility.

From its inception, there has been some appreciation of the value of sharing ideas and experience across national boundaries and, as illustrated in the next chapter, opportunities for exchange and international activity have partly been formalised through the establishment of international professional bodies, as well as through the development of other ‘schools-based’ cross-national and regional networks.

This chapter identifies a range of characteristics of education for the social professions which can be compared and some of the debates about the nature of its knowledge, values and skills base; it also examines some of the aspects and implications of ‘internationalising’ this process.

Social work education: some characteristics in comparative focus

There have been periodic studies about the form and extent of social work education, globally or in particular regions (for example UN 1964; Brauns and Kramer 1986; Council of Europe 1995); and some recent texts about comparative social work and welfare services have included reference to it at national level (Hokenstad et al. 1992). At national level or comparatively, social work education can be described according to a number of characteristics, including its origins and philosophical underpinnings, its current location and organisation, the length of training and level at which awards are offered, its entry criteria and student characteristics, its regulation, its teaching and assessment methods and its theoretical and practical content. These characteristics are used to structure the following discussion, with the exception of pedagogy and content which are examined in the next section.

With regard to origins, mention has already been made in the Introduction of the different roots of social work in traditions, drawing on the ‘medical model’ or on ‘educational’ and/or ‘collective’ approaches. These laid the basis for continuing debates about the boundaries and theoretical content of social work, apparent in national training arrangements and in different emphases in course content, partly related to place but also changing over time. A distinction between social services/casework-based courses and ones oriented to social development were evidenced in an international survey a generation ago (UN 1964); more recently ‘Europeanisation’ and exchange programmes at a regional level have illustrated both similarities and differences between social work and social pedagogy (Lorenz 1994), leading to the use of the term ‘social professions’ as an ‘inclusive’ device (Otto and Lorenz 1998).

The establishment of education programmes (whatever their theoretical orientation) throughout the world has spanned a century, from the earliest examples in the US and Europe to the most recent examples over the past decade in the East. The (early) establishment of social work in some countries – for example, Chile and South Africa both had schools established in the 1920s (Hokenstad et al. 1992) – tended to reflect the predominant thinking of colonial powers about the population to be served and the nature of social work, and thus the form that education should take, rather than enabling the establishment of indigenous forms of social provision and training programmes. Elsewhere, the establishment of educational programmes has taken place in the second half of the twentieth century and between 1950 and 1965 the UN, through its Economic and Social Affairs Department, undertook four international surveys of provision, characteristics and trends in training for social work which could be identified almost world-wide. A notable omission during that period was any reference to eastern Europe, but by the time of the last survey reference was made to the development of new schools in Africa and the Middle East.

The reports provided an important historical, global and comparative perspective on the development of social policies and welfare services in the mid-twentieth century with special reference to the form and content of educational programmes. The fourth report commented on ‘an increased awareness that economic and social development are interdependent’ (UN 1964:107); and noted a significant expansion of educational provision for social workers, and also in Latin America and Asia, for auxiliary workers (p.lll), reflecting growing recognition, in the early 1960s, of social needs, in the face of a lack of higher education opportunities and trained personnel. In some countries the influence of colonial thinking and educational models apparently began to shift as political power changed hands (UN 1964), but periodic concerns have been expressed since about the ongoing effects of cultural imperialism (Midgley 1983). Guzzetta (1996) recently criticised the continuing dominance of North American models, related to economic power and provision of literature, and this danger has also been identified in relation to the re-establishment, sometimes through partnership schemes, of social work education in the FSU and Central Europe (Cemlyn 1995).

Since the 1980s and particularly through the 1990s, there has been increased attention given to globalisation and regional policies, and opportunities for reciprocal learning between the advanced industrial and less developed countries or within particular regions (Europe being a case in point). This has led to renewed debate about the nature of social work and relevant educational models, both in the European context (Cannan et al. 1992; Lorenz 1994) and in the North American literature (Van Wormer 1997; Ramathan and Link forthcoming) with some renewed interest in comparative surveys, including about the extent of teaching about cultural diversity and international social work (Falk and Nagy 1997).

Up to the 1990s there had been a lack of a substantial, international survey and analysis of social work education provisions and developments of the kind previously undertaken by the UN; however the IFSW undertook a comparative survey of social work training and employment perspectives in the European Union (Cocozza 1990), and the Council of Europe funded a more in-depth study of the initial and further training of social workers across a wider area (27 countries from Ireland to Romania and from Iceland to Greece) in the mid-1990s (Council of Europe 1995). Meanwhile the International Association of Schools of Social Work (hereafter IASSW) in 1996 initiated a Global Census. More dispersed evidence (including in membership applications from newly established national associations to the IFSW) has identified a rapid growth (often re-establishment) in the number of schools and countries providing education for the social professions in Central Europe and FSU (Doel and Shardlow 1996; Connelly and Stubbs 1997), as well as in China (Ngai 1996), during the past decade.

With regard to location and organisation, as the term ‘education for the social professions’ implies, an overriding characteristic of the activity is its location in higher education, with the purpose of providing and developing knowledge, values and practice skills appropriate to a professional field. It can thus be seen as both a specialist area of activity relative to the wider field of social work, and a particular subject area in the academic context. This dichotomy, together with the nature of societal expectations or requirements of the social professions, can produce tensions in its national development and practice, some of which are inherent in all forms of professional education (Lyons 1997; Currey et al. 1993).

While education and training programmes have invariably been located at the tertiary level, they are not necessarily sited in the university sector. The establishment of schools of social work, sometimes under the auspices of the Church and/or reserved for women, and outside the university system, was previously evident in many European countries (Lorenz 1994). These have mostly now been integrated into more broadly based institutions (for instance, in Spain and Sweden), though still not necessarily having university status. For example Greek social work education is based in the Technological Education Institutes (TEIs), and Dutch departments are in the Highschools (Hogeschoolen). The picture becomes even more confused in some European countries, such as Germany where some training for social pedagogy has long had a place in the universities, while the post-war development of social work training has taken place in the Fachochschulen.

Elsewhere, for example in the US, educational programmes may be found in both universities and other higher education institutions; in the UK social work education shifted from a long held position in the universities to a predominance in the polytechnic sector in the 1970s and 1980s, and back to a majority base in the university sector in the early 1990s when the polytechnics gained university status. Location of training opportunities (according to type of higher education institution) may have implications for research capability and/or for continuing professional development and qualification opportunities beyond first degree level, and sometimes for the posts which qualified workers may hold on graduation or subsequently.

Meanwhile, in other countries (India, Australia), social work education was initially and is still based in universities, though often in a range of different departments (for instance social administration, psychology, education, sociology). World-wide there is a very mixed picture as to the extent to which social work constitutes an independent department, or is associated with other subjects in a more diverse department or school. This may have implications for the resources available to the subject area and is clearly related to debates about its academic standing, and the relative influence of other disciplines on course content and the wider social work agenda (Hartman 1989).

The length of social work education and the academic level of the qualifying award are also features which show significant variation, ranging from widespread development of two-year Master舙s degrees in Social Work (MSW) in North America (following non-professional undergraduate degrees), through degree-level courses of three to five years’ duration in most European countries, to a minimum of two-year non-graduate courses in the UK. However, there is also a widespread trend towards the development of three- or four-year undergraduate programmes, already the norm in Australia and some Asian and African countries, and now increasing in the US and UK.

The level and length of training may have implications for the type of work available: this is invariably the case in the US, but not necessarily so in the UK, where the same professional award is offered at three different academic levels, with the largest proportion of students taking non-graduate diplomas. Length of course and the academic level of the professional award may also have implications for status, and thus the nature of relationships with other professional groups, and the credibility of social work representation in interdisciplinary work or in policy matters.

Of greater relevance in the international context are questions about comparability of qualifications across national and regional boundaries. The anomalous position of the UK in the run-up to the creation of the Single European Market in 1992 was a matter of concern to British social work educators as reflected in meetings and conferences at the time, and in the literature (Barr 1990; Harris and Lavan 1992). A European Directive on mutual recognition of professional education qualifications (EEC 1989) effectively put British social work outside the framework of ‘three year courses, at higher education level, with regulated use of the title of social worker', requirements which other EU countries already met or have actively addressed since (for example, Ireland), and which, with a change in government in 1997, was still a matter for periodic lobbying in the UK.

Turning now to the entry criteria and characteristics of students, apart from the obvious differences in entry requirements of those applying for courses at post-graduate level, some similarities are observable. Social work is still predominantly a ‘women's profession', in terms of the high proportion of female students entering (and completing) training programmes universally, but there is slightly more variation in age, with a tendency to recruit ‘mature’ students (over 25 years) to non-graduate courses in the UK, and also to courses in countries which have developed part-time training opportunities (for example, Denmark and Switzerland), but most students proceeding to undergraduate social work degrees do so directly from school at 18 or 19 years of age. This means that the entry criteria are directly related to previous academic performance (for example, in Greece and Germany), with little or no selection according to ‘suitability’ for an occupation which some might consider ‘vocational'.

Elsewhere, some weight is given to previous work or voluntary experience and an attempt is made to assess how realistic and motivated students are for the chosen course. Selection procedures may also be informed by local or national ‘open access’ policies, though in many places people from ethnic minorities or with disabilities, for instance, are under-represented in higher education, including on social work courses. The UK central body responsible for approving courses and determining content and direction of social work education, the Central Council for Education and Training in Social Work (CCETSW, a quasi-autonomous governmental body), has attempted to address a number of these issues, including setting (overall) figures for intake to programmes (matching supply to demand); requiring overt policies and practice in relation to equal opportunities and anti-discrimination; and undertaking follow-up studies to monitor the take-up of employment opportunities. (At the time of writing in 1998, major changes are being proposed for the regulation of social work and social work education in the UK and the exact nature of the changes anticipated from the year 2000 remains to be clarified.)

The US also has a well-established course accreditation system which shares some similar concerns. However, the structure of the American Council for Social Work Education differs significantly from the UK model, in that the Council is substantially comprised and controlled by social work educators, without the wide range of government-nominated or agreed members of the UK Council. Accrediting bodies in other countries range from government ministries to the universities themselves, with a general trend towards greater public accountability in higher education and social work, and the development of various monitoring and audit exercises aimed at cost effectiveness and quality control (Becher 1994).

While social work education clearly has a vital role in establishing the basis for ethical, informed and skilful practice, and for awarding qualifications which signify readiness to practice, the actual regulation of social work as an occupation – with the registration of social workers, expectations about continuing professional development and disciplinary powers – is usually in the hands of the profession itself (through the professional associations), or is regulated by the local or national state. Sometimes, as in the case of the South African Council for Social Work, a statutory body is ‘charged with the regulation of social work and the training of social workers’ (Mazibuko et al. 1992:121). But social work is not a universally regulated activity and, as discussions in the late 1990s about the setting up of a General Council in either Social Work or Social Care or Social Services in the UK illustrate, the remit and range of occupational groups which might be covered by such a body is far from clear-cut.

Knowledge, skills and values for social professions

Just as there are some similarities and differences observable in relation to the characteristics discussed above, earlier comparative studies and some of the recent literature suggest some commonalities but also distinctive characteristics in the ethos and content of education for the social professions as illustrated in its pedagogical approaches, college curricula, including the teaching of principles, values or ethics; and the requirements for practice which feature in all programmes.

Pedagogical approaches here refer to the teaching, learning and assessment methods prevalent in relation to social work education in any one country. These in part reflect the norms and assumptions of a particular society about higher education (including the scale of provision), about how students learn and about the nature of relationships between staff and students. In some places, this results in a fairly didactic approach to teaching, and formal/traditional assessment methods, which may not be best suited to the integration of personal values and professional skills with academic knowledge which the establishment of professional identity, with a capacity for continuous evaluation and learning, requires.

Elsewhere, social work has demonstrated innovative approaches to experiential learning, case- and problem-based learning, the use of audio-visual technology, development of indigenous material and formative assessments, including use of self and peer assessment. The ‘massification’ of higher education in some societies and the dispersed nature of population in others, together with the substantial developments in information and communications technology (ICT), have prompted some growth of open and distance learning opportunities in this field (for example, in Australia), as in other subjects. Even on college-based courses, the increasing availability of personal computers, relevant software, and growth of e-mail and the Internet, offer new opportunities for learning and assessment in many countries, while the very apparent resource constraints in less developed countries (including lack of technological equipment) throw these advantages into sharp relief.

Whatever the norms and expectations of a given society with regard to higher education practices, and the level of resourcing available, the need to both develop learning opportunities and assessment styles compatible with the goals of social work education; and ensure academic rigour while also allowing for creativity and the integration of personal and professional development pose a constant challenge to social work educators.

Turning from issues about how best a professional subject can be taught, learned and assessed, the questions of what needs to be learned and what should be taught in the form of college and field-based curricula also reveal both some commonalities and divergence. With regard to the relationship between curriculum content, including social work theory and methods, and societal needs, tensions continue in many places, ranging from the pressure to prepare students for particular forms of practice in the statutory sector in the UK, to the need for training for social development work in rural areas in South Africa or India, relative to cours...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Dedication
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Introduction
• 1 Educating for the social professions – an international perspective
• 2 The international social work scene
• 3 The state, welfare and social work
• 4 International perspectives on ‘the family‘
• 5 Poverty – a global problem
• 6 Migration and refugees
• 7 Disasters in international perspective
• 8 Some conclusions and indications for the future
• References
• General index
• Index of authors cited