Principles of Neurotheology

Andrew B. Newberg

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN:
  9780754669944
• eBook ISBN:
  9781351908924
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Sociology

First Published in 2017. Neurotheology has garnered substantial attention in the academic and lay communities in recent years. Several books have been written addressing the relationship between the brain and religious experience and numerous scholarly articles have been published on the topic, some in the popular press. The scientific and religious communities have been very interested in obtaining more information regarding neurotheology, how to approach this topic, and how science and religion can be integrated in some manner that preserves both. If neurotheology is to be considered a viable field going forward, it requires a set of clear principles that can be generally agreed upon and supported by both the theological or religious perspective and the scientific one as well. Principles of Neurotheology sets out the necessary principles of neurotheology which can be used as a foundation for future neurotheological discourse. Laying the groundwork for a new synthesis of scientific and theological dialogue, this book proposes that neurotheology, a term fraught with potential problems, is a highly useful and important voice in the greater study of religious and theological ideas and their intersection with science.

Chapter 1
The Case for a Principia Neurotheologica (Principles of Neurotheology)

“Neurotheology” is a unique field of scholarship and investigation that seeks to understand the relationship specifically between the brain and theology, and more broadly between the mind and religion. As a topic, neurotheology has garnered substantial attention in the academic and lay communities in recent years. Several books have been written addressing the relationship between the brain and religious experience and numerous scholarly articles have been published on the topic. The scientific and religious communities have been very interested in obtaining more information regarding neurotheology, how to approach this topic, and whether science and religion can be integrated in some manner that preserves, and perhaps enhances, both. However, as would be expected, there have been both positive and negative responses to purported neurotheological studies and perspectives.

If neurotheology is to be considered a viable field going forward, it requires a set of clear principles that can be generally agreed upon and supported by both the theological or religious perspective and the scientific one as well. The overall purpose of this book is to set forth the necessary principles of neurotheology which can be used as a foundation for future neurotheological discourse and scholarship. In time, it would be highly valuable to have added input from a wide range of scholars with regard to these principles so that the field of neurotheology remains dynamic in its scope and process. Thus, it is likely that as this field proceeds, the guiding principles will require some welcome modifications. Also, it should be clearly stated that rather than specifically try to answer major theological or scientific questions, this book intends to espouse a program of scholarship and a methodological basis for future inquiry, thereby laying the groundwork for a new synthesis of scientific and theological discourse. In the end, neurotheology, a term fraught with potential problems, might nevertheless, be a highly useful and important voice in the greater study of religious and theological ideas and their intersection with science.

The relationship between the mind and human spirituality has been considered for at least several thousand years. For example, this intersection was described in the ancient Hindu scriptures of the Upanishads in which it was realized that something within us, particularly within the head, enables us to explore and experience the universe via our cognitive and sensory processes and also to discover our own sense of spirituality:

Between the two palates there hangs the uvula, like a nipple—that is the starting—point of Indra (the lord). Where the root of the hair divides, there he opens the two sides of the head, and saying Bhu, he enters Agni (the fire); saying Bhuvas, he enters Vayu (air); Saying Suvas, he enters Aditya (sun); saying Mahas, he enters Brahman. He there obtains lordship, he reaches the lord of the mind. He becomes lord of speech, lord of sight, lord of hearing, lord of knowledge. Nay, more than this. There is the Brahman whose body is ether, whose nature is true, rejoicing in the senses (prana), delighted in the mind, perfect in peace, and immortal. (Taittiriya Upanishad)

This section from the Upanishads reveals the importance of the body and the brain in achieving spiritual enlightenment. Neurotheology is a more recent attempt at discerning how the study of the human mind and brain (terms we will define later) relates to the pursuit of religions and religious experience. While a growing number of scholars have written a variety of papers and books about this topic, it is still in its nascent stages. One of the greatest shortcomings of neurotheology so far has been the lack of clear principles by which such scholarship should proceed. Thus, in order to establish more thoroughly neurotheology as an academic discipline, it is vital to consider the primary principles necessary for such an endeavor.

It is important to infuse throughout the principles of neurotheology the notion that neurotheology requires an openness to both the scientific as well as the spiritual perspectives. It is also important to preserve the essential elements of both perspectives. The scientific side must progress utilizing adequate definitions, measures, methodology, and interpretations of data. The religious side must maintain a subjective sense of spirituality, a phenomenological assessment of the sense of ultimate reality that may or may not include a divine presence, a notion of the meaning and purpose in life, an adherence to various doctrinal processes, and a careful analysis of religion from the theological perspective.

In short, for neurotheology to be successful, science must be kept rigorous and religion must be kept religious. This book will also have the purpose of facilitating a sharing of ideas and concepts across the boundary between science and religion. Such a dialogue can be considered a constructive approach that informs both perspectives by enriching the understanding of both science and religion.

But it is not an easy task to combine theological and scientific concepts. A primary problem with neurotheology is the need to reach a common starting ground between these two perspectives. This is something that will be attempted in this book. But, by necessity, sometimes one side or the other will have to be oversimplified. After all, there are not many neuroscientists familiar with the most recent theological debates and there are not many theologians who have a detailed understanding of functional neuroanatomy. Thus, another purpose of this book is to provide some starting points for dialogue between neuroscience and religion. Certainly for the theologian or religious scholar, some statements will seem superficial or incomplete. For the neuroscientist, the material may appear “dumbed down,” to use a common phrase among scientists. But neurotheology represents a beginning such that from two disparate fields a new multidisciplinary field can emerge. As an example for future scholarship, one might hope that the neuroscientist attempting to study morality will be well versed in the ancient texts and the writings of theologians such as Aquinas and Luther who were important in shaping our understanding of the topics of free will and ethics. Conversely, the theologian studying the writings of Aquinas or Luther might consider what was happening in their frontal lobes and limbic system while pondering their influential ideas. It would also be hoped that any of these approaches would not diminish, defame, debunk, or decry one perspective for another. Rather, the new synthesis would ultimately help human beings to relate better to the world around them and to engage both their biological and spiritual dimensions.

Before proceeding with the principles of neurotheology, it is first necessary to review the foundations upon which neurotheology rests. The foundations of neurotheology include a historical analysis of related concepts, a description of the contributions of theology and science to neurotheology, and an elaboration of the goals that such scholarship should aspire to. Following a description of the foundations of neurotheology, a number of definitions are necessary to review, and from there, the principles of neurotheology can be elaborated.

Historical Foundations of Neurotheology

To evaluate the historical background of neurotheology requires us to delve several thousand years back into history to see how religious traditions have considered the relationship between the mind and the person’s attempt to interact with some higher level of reality. It is also of interest to observe how the variety of philosophical and theological concepts regarding the universe and God may be recapitulated in a variety of brain processes. In this way, we can see more directly how various concepts considered throughout history connect to our current understanding of the brain. As will be discussed later in the book, the ability to relate theological concepts to mental and brain processes does not mean in any way to imply that these concepts have been reduced to brain chemistry, but rather may provide at the very least, a new perspective, and at most, an important method for further evaluating the true basis of those concepts.

In Eastern traditions there is significant historical development of the psychological analysis of the human being in relationship to both Buddhist as well as Hindu conceptions of the world and of spirituality.¹ The lines of the Upanishads above certainly indicate a strong interest not only in the functioning of the mind itself, but in the psychological and possibly biological correlates of mental activity that can be utilized to achieve the highest spiritual state.

Buddhist and Hindu writings have made extensive evaluations of the human mind and psychology focusing on human consciousness of the “self,” the emotional attachment human beings have to that “self,” and how human consciousness can be altered through various spiritual practices such as meditation. Buddhism elaborates the important elements of human consciousness which it organizes into the “four seals” of belief.² The first seal, “dukkha,” refers to suffering and is considered a universal aspect of the human condition. The second seal, “anatta,” refers to no-self and in particular that there is no separate existing self in the universe, but everything is interconnected. The third seal, “annicca,” refers to impermanence such that nothing in this world lasts and thus, personal achievement, success, and happiness should never be associated with transitory phenomena. The fourth seal is that “nirvana,” a release from suffering, does exist through the surrendering of attachment to the false sense of self that the mind usually holds.

Each of these seals can also be considered from a neurotheological perspective. For example, one can relate these important ideological concepts to various aspects of the human brain and psyche. Suffering plays a significant role in depression and stress, two topics which are central to current psychiatric research. It is also known that areas of the brain that are involved in the stress response and other negative emotions likely play a role in suffering and ultimately have a long-term effect on the health of the body.³ Studies have also revealed that emotional suffering may be felt in the brain similarly to physical pain.⁴ The second seal of no-self also may have physiological correlates since there are specific areas of the brain and body that contribute to our sense of self.⁵ The third seal of impermanence is interesting in the context of the brain since there are specific brain structures that support our sense of change and permanence. Furthermore, the brain itself appears built for change via the process of neuroplasticity which refers to the ability of the brain to change its structure and function.⁶ While the neurophysiological correlates of nirvana have yet to be evaluated, various components of letting go and the loss of the sense of self have been associated with specific brain functions.⁷ However, understanding the four seals can also help us to understand the human mind. Thus, understanding the relationship between suffering, the self, and change bears directly on how we might strive to understand the workings of the mind and brain.

It is fascinating that without any of the modern methodologies, Buddhist thought captured so well the intricate inner workings of the mind. Buddhist thought also focused substantial attention on consciousness as an energy that is deeply interconnected with the brain, body, and physical world.⁸ This has set up, in some sense, a separate biomedical paradigm in Eastern thought which is based on how “energy” moves through the body. While not using the same concept of “energy,” current scientific fields such as psychoneuroimmunology and psychoneuroendocrinology have identified many ways in which the interconnection between the brain and body are expressed. These fields might help bridge the gap between Eastern and Western biomedical paradigms, and of course, neurotheology might provide an excellent source for future research.

Another related concept with potential for reconciling differences between Eastern and Western paradigms is that of the yin and yang that describes the opposing forces that interact within human beings. A corresponding scientific concept of “tone” has been applied to many physiological and neurophysiological systems. Tone refers to the balance between two opposing physiological processes. For example, the autonomic nervous system that governs arousal and calming responses in the body typically rests in a tonal state such that the body is maintained within a certain balance. When one side of the autonomic nervous system is called upon, such as when we need to respond quickly to a threatening situation, the arousal system is activated while the calming system is suppressed. Thus, the notion of opposing forces that govern the mind and body are similar to those found in ancient Buddhist texts.

Similar concepts of the body’s “energy” or “Qi” (pronounced Chi) can also be found in Ayurvedic medical practices that developed in India.⁹ These practices also consider the human body, health, and psychological well being, from the perspective of the balance of energy flow in the body. By manipulating the energy, the appropriate health—physical, mental, and spiritual—can be restored. Ultimately a balancing of energy can allow the person to strive towards an enlightened state in which the mind has the ability to contact a more fundamental level of reality.

While Eastern traditions approached the notion of the mind and consciousness more directly, Western conceptions of religion typically did not focus specifically on the relationship between the mind and religious phenomena. For example, ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• 1 The Case for a Principia Neurotheologica
• 2 Definitions in Neurotheology
• 3 The Principles of Interaction Between Neuroscience and Theology
• 4 General Principles of Neurotheological Investigations
• 5 Towards a Neurotheological Hermeneutic
• 6 Principles Relating to the Methods of Neurotheological Research
• 7 Physiological and Phenomenological Correlates of Spiritual Practices
• 8 Reflections on Major Topics of Neuroscience
• 9 Reflections on Major Topics of Theology
• 10 Epistemological Issues in Neurotheology
• Epilogue: Final Conclusions
• Index