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When War Ends
Building Peace in Divided Communities
David J. Francis, David J. Francis
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eBook - ePub
When War Ends
Building Peace in Divided Communities
David J. Francis, David J. Francis
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This volume critically examines what happens when war formally ends, the difficult and complex challenges and opportunities for winning the peace and reconciling divided communities. By reviewing a case study of the West African state of Sierra Leone, potential lessons for other parts of the world can be gained. Sierra Leone has emerged as a 'successful' model of liberal peacebuilding that is now popularly advertised and promoted by the international community as a powerful example of a country that they finally got right. Concerns about how successful a model Sierra Leone actually is, are outlined in this project. As such this volume: -
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Chapter 1 Introduction:When War Ends: Building Peace in Divided Communities â Core Issues
DOI: 10.4324/9781315547329-1
What happens when war ends, how to build the peace and reconcile bitterly divided communities after years or decades of armed conflict? These are some of the major challenges facing war-ravaged and traumatised societies as well as the international community. The most difficult challenges that face war-torn societies are how to end war and build the peace. Ending war and building peace, though two different challenges, are inextricably linked. In fact, there is an emerging consensus that formal agreements to end wars and armed conflicts appear to be less demanding than the complex, difficult and long-term process of transition from war to peace.
Does war ever end for those who have been the victims and perpetrators of violence? After more than 60 years after the end of the Second World War (1939â45), regarded as the bloodiest war in history, the survivors (both civilians and soldiers) still find it difficult to overcome the horrors and traumas of war. Some still carry the trauma of that terrible experience and the psychological scars of the violence and brutality of the tragic events of the war. More recently, and after nearly two decades after the Rwandan genocide, both victims and perpetrators of violence and brutality still struggle to come to terms with the effects of the genocide at individual and societal levels. For these people and communities, will war ever end? It seems that the passage of time does not necessarily heal the trauma of war. People and communities only learn to cope with or develop survival strategies of dealing with the end of war, in particular, after the international community has left the conflict-torn societies. Based on extensive field work in post-conflict societies in Africa over a decade, we have found that what happens when war formally ends or when the guns fall silent is still a markedly under-researched area of study. Despite the intensity, scale and diversity of interventions to end bloody civil wars and rebuild the peace, there is still limited understanding of what actually happens when the shooting stops. Often and understandably, the military, security and humanitarian relief priorities predominate all the efforts of Postwar peacebuilding and reconciling bitterly divided communities. In fact, there is a lack of agreement in the immediate aftermath of the end of war as to when to âadd onâ, beyond the mere humanitarian relief and emergency assistance, the much-needed socio-economic and development aspects that are critical to stabilising and consolidating the fragile peace. The experience of post-conflict recovery societies across the world illustrates that the socio-economic and development dimensions (job creation, welfare and basic services provision) are critical to creating the durable foundations for winning the peace in divided communities. This creates the opportunity for people and divided communities to be committed to and invest in the fragile peace through provision, access and entitlement to socio-economic, development and human security needs. In other words, the socio-economic and development dimensions of peacebuilding are as important as the military-security aspects of Postwar peacebuilding and reconstruction.
When War Ends is primarily about understanding the problems, challenges and opportunities as well as the nature, dynamics and complexity of the process of rebuilding post-conflict and war-torn societies when the guns fall silent. This process of rebuilding failed and collapsed states and reconciling bitterly divided communities is an immensely difficult, complex and large scale task that goes beyond the usual international community's quick-fix, short-term and exit-strategy oriented Postwar peacebuilding and state reconstruction interventions. Beyond the immensity and complexity of the peacebuilding and state reconstruction processes, a major challenge is the diversity of the rebuilding interventions at individual, local community, societal, regional (provincial/sectional) and national levels. It requires not only the rebuilding and reconstruction of physical, political, governance, economic and development infrastructures and institutions, but also psychological and emotional repair at individual, societal and national levels. A major challenge is the multi-dimensional nature of post-conflict assistance involving military, security, socio-economic development, humanitarian relief, elections and human rights protection. This is further complicated by the diversity of the Postwar intervention actors and programmes, often led by external actors with diverse strategic interests, bilateral and multilateral donors, sometimes with ad hoc, uncoordinated intervention programmes. The sheer scale and complexity of the challenges of rebuilding war-torn societies as well as the diversity of the actors and agencies involved challenge even the most committed and enthusiastic actor or institution involved in the process. What is more, there is the controversy of when peacebuilding should start, whether during war, towards the end of wars or when the guns finally fall silent? The rebuilding process does not only require large scale financial and resource allocation over a long period of time, but there is also considerable disagreement about the strategy for Postwar peacebuilding and state reconstruction amongst the actors. By all indications, Postwar peacebuilding and state reconstruction are expensive enterprises that most poor, war-ravaged and underdeveloped societies can hardly afford. An analysis by the US House Budget Committee's Democratic Staff in 2003 found that the cost of the war and reconstruction in Iraq to the US by 2004 was an estimated US $178 billion. The report projected that the cost by 2008 of the war in Iraq (including cost of Postwar military presence, reconstruction costs, combat and other costs) will be US $308.9 billion.1
According to the World Bank, a post-conflict country is deemed to have made the transition from humanitarian emergency intervention to recovery and to stable Postwar development and reconstruction when it has fulfilled the following criteria:
- macroeconomic stability and its sustainability;
- recovery of private sector confidence as measured by investment ratio; and,
- effectiveness with which reconstruction institutions and political system are coping with the tensions and conflict-drivers that led to war.2
But all of these criteria operate in a very difficult and challenging Postwar environment that determines whether they are fulfilled or not. Commenting on the scale and challenge of the multi-dimensional nature of Postwar reconstruction assistance in the context of the West African state of Sierra Leone and Africa in general, the former Foreign Affairs Minister, Zainab Bangura aptly stated that:
It has gone beyond merely supporting the rebuilding of physical infrastructure, and in many cases, now includes humanitarian relief, institution (re)building, technical assistance, elections and the development of democracy, support to local NGOs and civil society, budgetary support, debt relief, disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of ex-combatants, removing landmines and repatriating refugees and the internally displaced. The standard post-conflict menu has become very daunting. It brings together an unusually wide-ranging group of political, economic and military actors as well as the media. The resources provided for the support of these actors flow through the weak institutions and corrupt, inefficient and ineffective government and public service bureaucracies, characterised by lack of administrative, financial and management skills.33 Z. Bangura, âAddressing Corruption and Implementing Reconstruction in postwar Sierra Leone: Institutional and Procedural Dimensionsâ. Speech by Minister of Foreign Affairs & International Co-operation, Mrs. Zainab Hawa Bangura www.tiri.org.
Against this background, a major challenge faced by war-torn and post-conflict societies is the ever present threat of relapse into further war and violence. This so-called âconflict trapâ is a major obstacle to rebuilding peace and reconciling divided communities. Paul Collier is of the view that âthe risks of conflict relapse are very high during the first post-conflict decade â typically around 50 per centâ.4 In fact, the World Bank sees a positive correlation between violent conflict and underdevelopment and perceives fragile, conflict-affected and post-conflict societies as part of this problem, in particular, the regional dimensions and spillover of violence and instability beyond national borders. According to the World Bank President, Robert Zoellick, fragile and conflict-affected states are the âtoughest development challenge of our eraâ because âdisease, outflows of desperate people, criminality and terrorism that can spawn in the vacuum of fragile states can quickly become global threatsâ. He argues that the most urgent priority faced by the international community is to âsecure development by building security, legitimacy, governance and economy in fragile states to smooth the transition from conflict to peaceâ.5 But, the World Bank's excessive focus on the economic development and market economy dimensions of peacebuilding has been called into question in that the Bank in post-conflict and war-torn societies has failed to address the root causes of violent conflict and, in particular, how some of its neoliberal economic policies are instigating political and socio-economic tensions and violent conflict. Not surprising therefore that the World Bank Managing Director, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, bringing an African perspective to the Bank's Postwar peacebuilding and state reconstruction approach, stated that âfocusing on peacebuilding alone is not sufficient. Just as development cannot occur in the absence of peace, peace without development is a peace that may not lastâ.6
But building peace, in particular sustaining long-term peace and stability after end of war, has proved far more difficult and challenging for both national and international actors and agencies. Boutros Ghali's An Agenda for Peace (1992) was one of the first to call for a fundamental shift in the international community's approach from simply peacekeeping and peacemaking to peacebuilding by focusing on âaction to identify and support structures which will tend to strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into conflictâ.7 But what type of peacebuilding are we talking about? In fact, peacebuilding for whom, by whom and for what purpose? In effect, there is lack of consensus on the definition, approaches and practice of peacebuilding. There are two contrasting but linked definitions of peacebuilding: a narrow and broad definition. According to the UN, one of the main actors in Postwar peacebuilding and state reconstruction since the 1990s, peacebuilding embraces programmes and intervention efforts at capacity building, state reconstruction, reconciliation and societal transformation. From this perspective, peacebuilding is seen as a long-term process that begins after violent conflict or war has reduced due to ceasefire or peace agreement or when war formally ends. To the contrary, some development co-operation partners view peacebuilding as security, political, economic, social, development and military programmes and interventions geared towards strengthening political settlements and to addressing the cause of conflict. This broad definition of peacebuilding accepts the fact that peacebuilding efforts and interventions may take place or commence during on-going conflict as well as before the end of war. According to the Tswalu Protocol (2008) this type of peacebuilding is synonymous with âstabilisationâ and is specifically aimed to support war-torn societies emerging from war to prevent relapse into further violence, reduce violence, protect civilians, properties and main institutions, promote political processes which create the conditions for enhanced security and stability as well as long-term, non-violent politics and development.8 The different interpretations of the concept of peacebuilding have to do with the approaches and priorities of agencies, institutions, actors and countries involved in building peace and Postwar state reconstruction. As Barnet et al. aptly state, âwhen the Bush Administration thinks of peacebuilding it imagines building market-oriented democracies, while UNDP imagines creating economic development and strong civil societies committed to a culture of non-violent dispute resolutionâ.9 In effect, though peacebuilding has a normative orientation, i.e. reconstructing a secure, peaceful and developed society, it is a largely value-laden project that apportions disproportionate powers to those who prescribe, fund and implement peacebuilding programmes.
It is important to stress that despite the diversity, large scope and range of peacebuilding activities and interventions, there is a predominant emphasis on neoliberal political and economic policies including free market and private enterprise, elections and democratisation and public institutions rebuilding â hence the label âliberal peacebuildingâ. This is based on the assumption that a liberally reconstructed state will be more peaceful and developed with the capacity to reduce violence and prevent relapse into further war as well as support international order, peace and security.10