Iconoclasm from Antiquity to Modernity

Kristine Kolrud, Marina Prusac

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9780367600983
• eBook ISBN: 9781351929202
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Art
• Subtopic: History of Ancient Art

The phenomenon of iconoclasm, expressed through hostile actions towards images, has occurred in many different cultures throughout history. The destruction and mutilation of images is often motivated by a blend of political and religious ideas and beliefs, and the distinction between various kinds of 'iconoclasms' is not absolute. In order to explore further the long and varied history of iconoclasm the contributors to this volume consider iconoclastic reactions to various types of objects, both in the very recent and distant past. The majority focus on historical periods but also on history as a backdrop for image troubles of our own day. Development over time is a central question in the volume, and cross-cultural influences are also taken into consideration. This broad approach provides a useful comparative perspective both on earlier controversies over images and relevant issues today. In the multimedia era increased awareness of the possible consequences of the use of images is of utmost importance. 'Iconoclasm from Antiquity to Modernity' approaches some of the problems related to the display of particular kinds of images in conflicted societies and the power to decide on the use of visual means of expression. It provides a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of the phenomenon of iconoclasm. Of interest to a wide group of scholars the contributors draw upon various sources and disciplines, including art history, cultural history, religion and archaeology, as well as making use of recent research from within social and political sciences and contemporary events. Whilst the texts are addressed primarily to those researching the Western world, the volume contains material which will also be of interest to students of the Middle East.

1

Introduction – Whose Iconoclasm?

Kristine Kolrud and Marina Prusac

The chapters in this book explore various kinds of iconoclasm as well as their similarities and differences. The plural form of iconoclasm is not infrequent in recent literature on image destruction, ¹ and this may imply an increased interest in the heterogeneity of iconoclastic acts as well as greater focus on the many different uses of the term. However, iconoclasms may also be used to refer to distinct periods of iconoclastic attacks, such as the first and second Byzantine iconoclasm. ² The present volume presents different perspectives on the understanding of the term in relation to various episodes of image destruction. This diversity may be considered symptomatic of how studies in the field of iconoclastic practice seem to influence the understanding of the definition itself and even question the usefulness of the term. Nevertheless, all of the contributors predominantly understand iconoclasm as the destruction or alteration of images or objects imbued with some kind of symbolic value. Most of the objects discussed are associated with religious practice, but one should bear in mind that even religion is an elusive concept, as noted by Jens Braarvig (Chapter 10). The inclusion of images retained by memory, in Tarald Rasmussen and Siri Sande’s essays (Chapters 7 and 11), as well as those circulated on the internet, discussed by Sande, also demonstrates that iconoclasm may be directed at more than tangible objects. It moreover points to some of the difficulties involved in defining images as well as the rather slippery term art. Here diverging interpretations are related to the types of artworks or artefacts to be included, which reasons for destruction or mutilation may be labelled iconoclast, how the objects could be destroyed and by whom. A central question therefore is the distinction between iconoclasm and other forms of destruction. In The Destruction of Art Dario Gamboni includes an interesting juxtaposition of the terms iconoclasm, which ‘implies an intention’, vandalism, the effect of which ‘could be denounced as … devoid of meaning’, and destruction, which ‘is only apparently neutral’. ³ In the present volume it is not so much a question of the boundaries between vandalism and iconoclasm as what kind of ideological motives or intentions may be said to pertain to iconoclastic attacks. In Chapter 10, however, Braarvig places greater emphasis on the qualities of the object than the motives of its destroyer. Another significant question is the sometimes impossible task of distinguishing between different forms of damage as well as how, in many cases, the scarcity of material evidence makes interpretation of textual sources the only option. The discourse of iconoclasm or the proper use of images is highly relevant in this context but not always easy to consider in relation to actual practice. ⁴ Most of the assaults considered took place in public places of worship, where it is reasonable to assume that the actual attacks and the damage caused by them could be witnessed by others. However, Rasmussen (Chapter 7) includes the understanding of iconoclasm as a wiping-out of images on an individual level. With the exception of Thomas Noble (Chapter 6) who discusses the Carolingian middle way, all of the contributors address the issue of how iconoclasm either questions or reinforces authority.

The Term Iconoclasm

This focus on the actual or potential transformation of the object (even if to some extent mental images are included) distinguishes this volume from the more radical uses of the term. The fact that iconoclasm can be employed both literally to describe ‘the breaking or destroying of images; esp. the destruction of images and pictures set up as objects of veneration’ and figuratively as ‘the attacking or overthrow of venerated institutions and cherished beliefs, regarded as fallacious or superstitious’ ⁵ in reality results in a potentially rather malleable definition. The contributors to this volume focus on the literal definition of iconoclasm although, as already mentioned, even in this respect the use of the term is far from straightforward. ⁶ Rather the understanding and employment of the term remains complex, partly due to the unclear definitions of icon as well as idol. Idolatry, the excessive veneration of idols, is a common justification for iconoclasm.

The concepts of idols and idolatry are central to the three major monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Idol-worship has the potential for substituting worship of the deity and therefore can pose a threat to the god as such. The definition of idol itself is not uncomplicated. Alain Besançon notes that although the biblical concept does not appear entirely precise (remembering that the Bible discusses idols in a number of places), ‘the word “idol” acquired a stable and precise meaning through usage: it is the image, statue, or symbol of a false god’. ⁷ The word idol is etymologically rooted in the Judaeo-Christian cultural sphere and comes from the Greek eidolon. ⁸ Not only idol, but even the Greek eikon – which forms the basis of iconoclasm (clasm being based on klan – to break) can be interpreted in varying manners. ⁹ John of Damascus, whose importance to the Christian tradition can hardly be underestimated, discusses six groups of images and is the first to include natural objects among them. ¹⁰ In Chapter 5 Anne Karahan discusses the concepts of eikon and eidolon in the Byzantine context and compares John of Damascus’ image defence with that of another important Byzantine iconophile, Theodore of Studion. Nevertheless, power struggles in the Byzantine period were not always primarily about religion. All parties based their arguments on Christological definitions, but the ways by which iconoclasm coincided with other dramatic changes in the Byzantine Empire, Karahan argues, suggest that those who engaged in the debate were well aware of the immediacy of images and hence their power.

Noble, on the other hand, demonstrates in Chapter 6 that in the West the Carolingians were critical of the Byzantine interpretation of images and idols.¹¹ Noble discusses various attitudes to images in the Carolingian period, when both the destruction and the worshipping of art were condemned as heretical. In the absence of alternative, neutral solutions to a conflict, a middle way, was sought, abolishing iconodulia alongside iconoclasm.

One of the complicating factors of the understanding of images is the long tradition for mental images, based on the concept of a link between images and memory. In Chapter 11 Sande points out how this can be dated to antiquity but currently appears threatened by the constant overflow of visual representations. Rasmussen discusses the relevance of mental images to Luther’s concept of iconoclasm in Chapter 7. ¹² The concept of living images, briefly discussed here by Karahan (Chapter 5), further complicates the matter. ¹³ Bente Kiilerich (Chapter 4) moreover emphasises the ancient roots of the remarkably strong connection which at times still is found between a living person and his effigy.

If the definition of icon and image is slippery, it follows that the understanding of iconoclasm can hardly be fixed. Even if, as pointed out by Gamboni, one must be wary of drawing the conclusion that ‘there exists a timeless grammar of iconoclasm’, it appears that certain common denominators do exist. ¹⁴

The Phenomenon of Iconoclasm

Significant contributions to the understanding of the phenomenon of iconoclasm have been made by such scholars as Alain Besançon, Moshe Barasch, Martin Warnke, Dario Gamboni, Jan Assman and David Freedberg. ¹⁵ The exhibition and exhibition catalogue Iconoclash, edited by Bruno Latour and Peter Weibel, have made a decisive impact on approaches to the subject. ¹⁶ Latour, in fact, suggests grouping iconoclasts according to their general attitudes towards images, and these possibilities are explored further by Gamboni. ¹⁷ The majority of publications, however, concentrate on specific periods, particularly Byzantium and the Reformation. ¹⁸ While there can be little doubt that the image storms of the Byzantine and Reformation eras are of the utmost importance, we find it particularly interesting to see these periods in a broader perspective. In Chapter 2 Eberhard Sauer emphasises the heterogeneity of iconoclastic reactions within and beyond the Roman Empire, and illustrates the complexity of iconoclastic movements even before the Byzantine image struggles. Sauer considers shared factors and regional particularities in his study of selective iconoclasm in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. He offers an expansive overview of different forms of iconoclastic attacks through a number of case studies. Noble’s essay on the Carolingians (Chapter 6) serves to bring nuance to Byzantine iconoclasm and, moreover, appears to provide a link to the image wars of the sixteenth century. Rasmussen (Chapter 7) points to diverging attitudes towards iconoclasm within Lutheranism and the fact that, even if text was preferred, images sometimes could have a positive function. ¹⁹ The different Protestant views on images have received far less attention than the conflict between Catholics and Protestants. On the whole the Lutheran attitude is considered more moderate than the Calvinist. ²⁰ Rather ironically, perhaps, the ideas expressed by the Carolingian author, Theodulf, were used by Calvin and, as commented by Noble, demonstrate the altered attitude towards religious images. Although Calvin disapproved of unauthorised removal of images, iconoclasm was carried out with great fervour in Reformed areas. In Chapter 8 Andrew Spicer considers the uprising and iconoclasm by adherents of the Reformed faith in Le Cateau-Cambrésis in 1566. Spicer emphasises the importance of external influences in the frontier-region of Le Cateau-Cambrésis and considers this iconoclastic assault in light of the politico-religious conflicts which took place in the 1560s in France and the Southern Netherlands. He ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Illustrations
• Notes on Contributors
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction – Whose Iconoclasm?
• 2 Disabling Demonic Images: Regional Diversity in Ancient Iconoclasts’ Motives and Targets
• 3 Presence and the Image Controversies in the Third and Fourth Centuries AD
• 4 Defacement and Replacement as Political Strategies in Ancient and Byzantine Ruler Images
• 5 Byzantine Iconoclasm: Ideology and Quest for Power
• 6 Neither Iconoclasm nor Iconodulia: The Carolingian Via Media
• 7 Iconoclasm and Religious Images in the Early Lutheran Tradition
• 8 Iconoclasm on the Frontier: Le Cateau-Cambrésis, 1566
• 9 The Waldensians and the Piedmontese Easter of 1655
• 10 Iconoclasm – Three Modern Cases
• 11 Conclusion: Iconoclasm in History and Present-day Use of Images
• Bibliography
• Index