Encyclopedia of Cremation

Lewis H. Mates, Douglas J. Davies

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• eBook ISBN: 9781317143826
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Religion

The Encyclopedia of Cremation is the first major reference resource focused on cremation. Spanning many world cultures it documents regional histories, ideological movements and leading individuals that fostered cremation whilst also presenting cremation as a universal practice. Tracing ancient and classical cremation sites, historical and contemporary cremation processes and procedures of both scientific and legal kind, the encyclopedia also includes sections on specific cremation rituals, architecture, art and text. Features in the volume include: a general introduction and editorial introductions to sub-sections by Douglas Davies, an international specialist in death studies; appendices of world cremation statistics and a chronology of cremation; cross-referencing pathways through the entries via the index; individual entry bibliographies; and illustrations. This major international reference work is also an essential source book for students on the growing number of death-studies courses and wider studies in religion, anthropology or sociology.

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ADVERTISING: THE RHETORIC OF CREMATORIA

Because crematoria are businesses offering services to bereaved people who are in a delicate emotional and psychological condition the way in which they advertise their services needs to convey respect, support and sympathy for their prospective clients’ pain. Nevertheless, their major interest is, like that of any business, an economic one. It is noteworthy that many crematorium advertisements worldwide share a common structure in that they begin by attempting to deal with people’s fears and suspicions, perhaps by answering common questions people might raise concerning cremation, such as whether it goes against their religious tradition, especially in the case of Christianity and Judaism. Throughout an advertisement it is important to note not only what is said but also, and perhaps more significantly, how it is said. Indeed, it can be argued that the whole rhetoric of an advertisement works for marketing purposes and is specially targeted, as will be seen, at a postmodern mentality.

Fears and suspicions

Whereas in the UK the majority of people choose to be cremated, in other countries, such as the USA and Portugal, most people still express their suspicions – grounded in fears of one sort or another – about the practice of cremation. Crematoria, especially those established in countries where they serve a minority of the population, are aware of people’s wariness towards cremation and one of their major efforts is to inform potential clients of the positive side of their services. To this end, it is common for crematoria in the USA, for example, to provide potential clients with brochures, both at their offices and on their webpages. These describe every step of the cremation process, the professionalism of the staff, the quality of the technology used and all the ‘extra’ services the company has to offer. In addition, the brochures aim to reassure people that choosing cremation does not imply a denial of traditional beliefs and practices, and that, contrary to what might be thought, it is a respectful and dignifying means of dealing with the body of a loved one. People are usually concerned about tradition, the future of the cremated remains, environmental issues and the costs of cremation, and it is precisely these issues that crematoria address.

Clients are assured that the licensed cremation director supervises the entire process of cremation. The ‘highly trained professional staff’ are presented as those whose purpose is to guide the bereaved through one of the most difficult times of their lives, and who will, at no cost or obligation, be available to review the ‘program’ with their clients and answer any questions concerning their services. People are welcome to visit crematoria or to call in order to discuss any issues. Frequently the crematoria have support available from psychologists and even have brochures advising on how to explain cremation to a child and how the bereaved should deal with the cremated remains so as to avoid future psychological damage.

In countries marked by Christian traditions people may fear that their salvation is jeopardized if they are cremated instead of buried. This springs from the notion that the Bible favours burial of the body of the believer; it is tied in with the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body, the concept of cremation as a pagan practice, and the idea that God reserves the flame for those who deserve punishment. The sentence ‘you are dust, and to dust you shall return’ (Genesis 3:19), curiously, is used both by those who oppose cremation and by those who favour it, as it does indeed seem to fit both contexts. In the context of cremation this expression is taken more literally, as the cremated remains are seen as the ‘dust’ to be returned to ‘dust’. In this way, crematoria borrow legitimacy from the Bible. On the Internet there are some ‘discussion rooms’ where these issues are debated, and which are often supported by the companies that offer cremation services. To those who put forward the doctrine of resurrection of the body as an obstacle to cremation practices, the reply is that just as God can resurrect a decomposed buried body, so can He resurrect a body from its cremated remains. Those who doubt this doubt God’s omnipotence. Cremation, it is argued, need not to be looked upon as being a break in family or religious traditions. The choice of cremation does not imply absence of a traditional funeral. In fact, a funeral service usually takes place before cremation, and it need be no different to a funeral followed by an interment. Memorial services held before cremation can have the body present, or the service may occur after cremation with the cremated remains present.

Some people question whether their ashes may end up being mixed with those of someone else or with other materials resulting from the cremation process, such as wood. To this, crematoria reply that only one person is cremated at a time and that the equipment is carefully cleaned before the next cremation. Further, they claim that, as their technology has improved cremated remains are easily separable from other materials. Environmental issues may also be raised. Cremation is seen as a positive way to respond the shortage of land available for burial, for one urn takes much less space than a coffin. Those who want their ashes to be scattered in the sea sometimes express concern that because ashes do not sink, they may end up on the shore. To this crematoria reply that there are companies that take the cremated remains to the seabed, thus circumventing this problem. Some crematoria, however, advise the bereaved to put the ashes in a place that may serve as a memorial or a focus of grief, such as a garden, since psychologists claim that this facilitates the grieving process. Through such advice crematoria express their concern for their clients, demonstrating that they care for, and support, them in times of pain. Indeed, they attempt to convey the message that they provide a service; they do, not impersonally and coldly sell it.

Crematoria often advertise cremation as a cheaper alternative to burial. Moreover, taking account of the fact that nowadays families tend to be more scattered, they remind people that cremation is the best option if the family lives far away for, otherwise, ‘who would tend their grave?’ Cremation is thus presented as offering more freedom of choice in disposing of the remains of the deceased. The practice of cremation, as it is advertised, is imbued with the idea that, if pursued with respect and dignity, it will help to deal with grief, achieve emotional stability, peace of mind and even alleviate guilt (see Cremation Association, 2003).

Strategic wording

Interestingly, when advertising cremation, words such as ‘death’, ‘fire’ and ‘burn’ are usually avoided, and the process of grinding the cremated remains – especially bones and calcium deposits milled down to finer particles in a cremulator – is frequently downplayed or omitted. In an attempt to acknowledge the importance of the body, some advertisements explicitly or implicitly convey the message that a dead body feels no pain and that the cremation process is gentle, respectful and dignifying. This theme is frequently repeated throughout advertisements, along with the message that the practice is increasing in popularity worldwide and is becoming more and more accepted as the ‘taboos’ of the past are progressively overcome. Cremation is also described as a fashionable option since many well-known personalities, such as statesman, prominent military persons and people from the worlds of sports and entertainment, have chosen to be cremated. Cremation advertisements, while adopting a tone of sympathy for the pain of the bereaved, often emphasize, too, the opportunity to celebrate the life of the deceased and to therefore introduce a tone of joy in the midst of grief.

Between the first and last paragraphs of an advertisement there is frequently a change in the type of vocabulary. The initial paragraphs may include words such as ‘shock’, ‘confusion’, ‘tremendous grief’, ‘pain’ and ‘suffering’. In this way the advertisement shows to potential clients that the company in question understands the emotional and psychological dilemmas the bereaved are experiencing. The following paragraphs may then take on a more positive tone, intending to convince the bereaved that the company has ‘solutions’ to the problems in question. This more positive vocabulary includes words such as ‘warm atmosphere’, ‘beautiful rooms’ (with reference to the place where the memorial service can be conducted), ‘supportive’, ‘caring’, ‘respectful’, ‘dignifying’ and ‘best technology’. This ‘positive’ part of the advertisement is charactized by the constant use of euphemisms, such as ‘time of need’ when referring to ‘death’ and ‘applied high temperatures’ rather than ‘burn’ which connotes physical pain. The same type of discourse is evident also in advertisements for pet cremation since owners tend to search for a caring way to deal with the body of a beloved pet in order to better deal with their own grief.

The rhetoric of crematoria aims to persuade – to engage both the public’s intellectual and emotional responses. Aristotle distinguished between logos (the logical content of a speech) and lexis (its style and delivery), although, this division is an artificial one since ideas and their verbal expressions are so intimately connected that they form a continuum. As Burton (2003) suggests, the overlapping nature of logos and lexis can be understood through the word ‘ornament’, which has its roots in the Latin verb ornare – ‘to equip’: ‘The ornaments of war, for example, are weapons and soldiers. The ornaments of rhetoric are not extraneous; they are the equipment required to achieve the intended meaning or effect’. Thus, cremation advertisements are rich in figures of speech such as metaphors, repetitions and euphemisms – rhetorical ornaments that emphasize the ideas the author intends to inculcate in the readers’ minds, touching their intellect and emotions in an effort of persuasion.

The postmodern mentality

Nowadays, crematoria advertisements focus on individuality and diversity, appealing both to people who are religious and wish for a traditional funerary ritual and to those who are not religious and therefore prefer a different type of ritual. Crematoria inform their clients that funeral services can be traditional or non-traditional, elaborate or simple, and they can be set in accordance to different religious traditions, such as Christianity, Buddhism or Hinduism. Emphasis is placed on individual choice, and funerary services are therefore organized strictly according to the client’s preferences, convenience and instructions. By informing the client of the flexibility of ritual that cremation permits, crematoria appeal to a postmodern mentality, characterized by an increased acknowledgement, acceptance and celebration of individual idiosyncrasies. The advertisements make it clear that, contrary to what might be thought, cremation does not limit choice but, rather, increases options in the process of ‘memorialization’. Some brochures distributed by crematoria to potential clients include quoted personal recommendations from people who favour cremation. These accounts often implicitly suggest that, as times change, perspectives and opinions change, often in a tone that may be interpreted as defying tradition. For example, in a rebellious tone, writing in favour of cremation, Jackie O’Neil (2003) states, ‘I’ll set a new trend, tradition be damned.’

Some companies nowadays offer a ‘pre-paid bereavement plan’ in which individuals may choose the type of funerary service they prefer and pay in advance for all expenses. Naturally, in order to prevent clients from feeling that the fact of ‘prearranging’ their funerals might imply that their death is imminent, when advertising such schemes’ funerary companies use expressions such as ‘before the need arises, often years before’; they imply that clients are ‘moving toward peace of mind for them and their families’ (Flynn Funeral & Cremation Memorial Centres).

Great flexibility is offered in making this kind of arrangement: the client may visit the company’s office, a member of the company can visit the client’s home or office, arrangements may be completed directly over the Internet, and there are several payment options. Prearranging one’s cremation is sold as a way of guaranteeing that one’s wishes are known at time of need, and advertisements emphasize the fact that the client is protected from inflation. As Flynn Funeral & Cremation Memorial Centres state on their webpage:

‘You and your family will have the security of knowing final needs are taken care of as you wish.

• You have relieved your family and loved ones of burdens during a time of emotional stress.

• Your wishes and desires have been established.

• You have made a wise financial decision by pre-funding for funeral expenses.’

Conclusion

The communication of ideas and beliefs about cremation is shaped by rhetorical elements that intend to induce people to adopt a certain ethos and world-view. The rhetorical elements employed by crematoria in their discourses aim to affect people’s thoughts, imagination, associations of ideas and judgements. One persuasive way of convincing potential clients is to invest cremation with emotional and intellectual meaning. Further, like any other business, crematoria have to deal with competition – namely, other crematoria and funerary companies that organize interments. When competing with other crematoria advertisements often emphasize the company’s technological superiority and the professionalism of their staff. When competing with companies that promote interments crematoria try to assure people that choosing cremation does not imply a break with tradition as a traditional funeral may still be performed. Ana Ludovico

References

Burton, G.O. (2003), Silva Rhetoricae, available at: http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm (accessed 12 April 2003).

Flynn Funeral & Cremation Memorial Centres at: http://www.cremationmemorialcenters.com/plan/index.html (accessed 20 May 2003).

Jackie O’Neil (2003), Peace of Mind, available at: http://www.forpeaceofmind.com.au/consideringcremation.cfm (accessed 20 May 2003).

Cremation Association at: http://www.cremationassociation.org/docs/end.pdf (accessed 20 May 2003).

AIDS/HIV

The emergence of HIV/AIDS as an infection and illness in the latter half of the twentieth century has carried various consequences for cremation. When individuals who had died of AIDS were first cremated there was some concern over whether the cremation process might in any way involve elements of contagion. These issues, and some popular fears associated with them, were largely resolved in and through a redoubled concern with normal and proper processes of hygiene in connection with cremation. It remains to be seen whether, for example, cremation will come to be accepted in relatively non-cremation societies, such as Africa, in contexts of very high death rates due to the terminal effect of the virus. Douglas J. Davies

See also Islam (in the content of Islamic burial tradition); South Africa; Zimbabwe.

ALTERNATIVE SPIRITUALITIES

Stephen Prothero has argued that cremation in the USA indicates confidence that the ‘true self is spiritual rather than material’ (2001: 5). If so, this might suggest that those who identify themselves as New Agers or as members of spiritualist, esoteric or transcendentalist movements could be expected to prefer cremation to burial. It might also suggest that pagans (members of a growing nature-centred spirituality, see Harvey, 1997) and many indigenous peoples could be expected to prefer to bury their dead rather than cremate them. In addition to these more specific implications of Prothero’s thesis, cremation might be tested for its utility as an indicator of religious and cultural positions with regard to spirituality versus materiality, transcendence versus immanence or inner selfhood (perhaps ‘soul’) versus embodied selfhood. That is, cremation may be far more than a choice between modes of disposal and serve, rather, to indicate significant cultural constructions of personhood, identity and culture.

However, matters are more complex than this. While Prothero notes that some, at least, of the first exponents of cremation among white North Americans were members of esoteric movements such as the Theosophical Society, he is also clear that their motivations were not primarily religious. Understandings of cremation as ‘more modern’, ‘scientific’ and ‘hygienic’ were reiterated more frequently than notions about the immortality of the soul or reincarnation. It seems likely, then, that the first US cremationists found that their notions of spirituality and materiality supported developments in wider cultural notions about modernity.

When applied to contemporary alternative spiritualities Prothero’s argument also requires refinement. It seems fairly straightforward to map some prominent movements according to the degree to which they celebrate or dismiss the body as religiously meaningful. Similarly, these groups could be mapped according to the degree to which they understand the ‘true self’ to be spiritual, interior, and/or transcendent rather than thoroughly embodied. Two examples may usefully represent contrasting positions with regard to the significance of spirituality and materiality – namely, paganism and esoteric movements. Most pagans not only describe their religion as nature-respecting, but also consider embodiment and materiality to be a prime location for encounters with the divine and other sources of value. Conversely, some esoteric movements and some new religions evolving within a Hindu context consider the body to be a shell inhabited temporarily by a ‘soul’, or the person’s true self, during its continuing quest for enlightenment that will curtail further incarnation. However, while it is true that Hindu-derived groups prefer cremation as a means of disposal, the situation for pagans and for many avowed esotericists is much more ambiguous. It may be that the choice between burial and cremation is not decided with reference to the material/spiritual dichotomy but by reference to taken-for-granted and established cultural usage or to pragmatic considerations of cost and availability. Some more detail may illustrate this situation.

When a Druid, William Price, cremated his son, named in Welsh Iesu Grist (Jesus Christ) in 1884 (White, 2002), he was among the first revivers of cremation in Britain. Druids of various kinds have followed his example ever since. Some of these Druids have been part of a Welsh cultural movement centred on competitive performances of bardic poetry and rooted in nonconformist Christianity, but others have been avowedly pagan. Far from negating the body or trying to liberate some putative soul, spiritual essence or ‘true self’ from its material confines, these pagan Druids celebrate embodiment. Their reasons for cremating include knowledge of ancient traditions, drawing on literary and archaeological evidence, the ease with which crematoria permit highly personalized (or do-it-yourself) ceremonies, cost and availability. In other words, practical motivations blend with spec...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Illustrations
• Abbreviations
• Acknowledgements
• List of Contributors
• Introduction
• A–Z Entries
• Cremation Statistics
• Chronology of Cremation
• Cremation Society Archive Sources
• Select Bibliography
• Index