Sport in Islam and in Muslim Communities

Alberto Testa, Mahfoud Amara

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2015
• eBook ISBN: 9781317595434
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Islamic Theology

As Islam's visibility in global society increases, Muslim populations grow, and Muslim countries compete to take up positions at the heart of global sport, the interplay between sport and Islam becomes ever more illuminating. Sport in Islam and in Muslim Communities is the first book to analyse this relationship through a pluralist lens, exploring the questions it raises about contemporary Islam, globalisation, and the challenges faced by (in particular young) Muslims in negotiating their place in global society.

With contributions from Muslim and non-Muslim authors, the book approaches an array of contemporary issues, from the role of sport in gender, youth and political identities in Islam and Muslim societies to sport policy in Muslim countries, sport's role among Muslim minorities and sport marketing's relationship to Muslim cultures.

Drawing on sociology, anthropology, political science, Islamic studies and sport studies, Sport in Islam and in Muslim Communities not only examines the significance of sport in Islam, but helps to draw wider conclusions on religious identity in sporting settings and the interplay between sport, gender, political ideology and consumer culture.

Part I
Understanding sport in Islam

2
Engaging in sport

The Islamic framework

Alberto Testa

Introduction

Islam is not only a religion but also a modus vivendi, a complex belief system that influences the individual in his social and spiritual totality. Because of its popularity–by 2050 the number of Muslims will nearly be the equivalent of the number of Christians around the world ¹–Islam has been the focus of numerous academic analyses aiming not only to unveil its tenets but also to explain the interaction dynamics of its believers within and outside Western societies (de Knop et al., 1996; Kahan, 2003; Farooq & Parker, 2009). In Western societies, analyses have tended to concentrate mainly on issues such as discrimination and social exclusion of Muslim communities, Islamophobia, and radicalisation of Muslim youth. Radicalisation and Islamophobia seem to be the most recurrent topics since 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States; both issues can mainly be explained by a lack of integration of Muslims into the social domains of the communities where they are located. Radicalisation in particular can be promoted by perceptions of unfair treatments and distrusts in the political system of the country where Muslim communities live. Consequently, the lack of integration, especially of the second- and third-generation Muslim youth, is identified in the literature as one of its strong determinants (Christmann, 2012). This poor social integration exacerbates community divisions and isolation.

Over the past ten years, sport participation of young Muslims has also received considerable attention from the academic world. Well-devised sport programs are able to appeal to youths and provide them with important cognitive and behavioural benefits instrumental to tackle, for instance, the earlier mentioned problem of radicalisation (Nichols, 1997; Agenfor Italia, 2013). Sport is also considered in the literature as a suitable tool to facilitate society cohesion and the inclusion of marginal social groups, such as immigrants and ethnic minorities, including Muslim youth. The Council of Europe has established this concept in 2004 and 2010; it was also reiterated by the European Commission in 2007 (White Paper, European Commission, 2007). ² However, despite its positive functions, sport can also be divisive and elitist (Kennett, 2005); this depends largely on how it is promoted. Modern sport, especially at the elite level, in fact, tends to be structured and promoted according to the values of dominant social groups (Whitson, 1984; Gruneau, 1988). Social minority groups, which do not express these values, risk being marginalised and may face barriers to participation in sport. This assertion is supported by studies that have highlighted how sport participation of minorities such as Muslims (especially women) is low in Western societies. Representatives of Muslim communities are also absent in professional sport, especially at a managerial and leadership level (Amara & Henry, 2010; Burdsey, 2010). As far as Muslim youth is concerned, sport can also be used as a radicalisation tool as demonstrated, for instance, by the recruitment of Palestinian suicide bombers at a football club in Israel in the nineties (Agenfor Italia, 2013).

Although research on young Muslims in Western societies has significantly increased over the last decade, there are still few studies that, starting from differentiating the concept of culture from religion, present a comprehensive analysis of the Islamic vision of modern sport. The few studies that exist in the literature lend themselves to criticisms because they often do not base their analysis on Islamic texts and studies of Muslim scholars and/or do not sufficiently consider the important distinction between cultural norms and Islamic practices, distorting the representation of the Islamic conception of sport (Benn, Pfister & Jawad, 2010).

The aim of this edited book is to examine critically the significance and roles of sport in Islam, in Muslim societies, and within Muslim communities in the West. This chapter specifically aims to provide the starting point of this analysis, explaining the Islamic conception of sport participation and its views on modern sport. It will focus on two analytical streams. The first one concerns the participation in sports activities in accordance with the Shari’a, namely the moral, religious, legal, and social code of the Islamic religion that is based on the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and in minor part on the Hadith. Particularly important is at this stage to differentiate between the latter two; Sunnah means ‘way’ and it includes religious practices carried out and promoted by the Prophet Mohammad, which have been passed down and authenticated throughout generations. The Hadiths are new saying and statements that are transmitted by the Prophet’s companions and have as focus the Prophet. They have been not universally confirmed, so they are not as reliable as the Qu’ran or the Sunnah. ³ The second analytical stream of this chapter concerns the challenging relationship between Islam and modern sport.

Before commencing the chapter, it is opportune to focus briefly on the methodology which underpins it.

Methodological notes

Literature searches were carried out during September through October (2013–2015) to retrieve international academic studies, including the works of Islamic authors; to identify verses of the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the Hadith related to physical activity and sport; and to retrieve Fatâwâ (Fatwâ – singular). A Fatwâ is an answer or ruling by an Islamic scholar on questions asked by Muslims who are unclear if they follow the prescriptions of Islam. Generally, it is based on religious sources such as the Qu’ran and/or Sunnah but can also focus on a circumstance that is not specifically mentioned by these Islamic official sources. In this case the Islamic scholars will make a decision on the base of interpretations and their knowledge of Islam. The Fatâwâ on sports and sports participation, mentioned in this work, are easily accessible on the Internet and are published in English by five major Islamic websites: Askimam.org, Islamweb.net, Islamicity.com, IslamOnline.com, and IslamQA.info. The websites chosen by the author are in competition with each other to be the most authoritative font of Islamic interpretation. Although they are quite popular, the author of the paper acknowledges that these websites do not represent the opinions of the entire Islamic world that is characterised by very fragmented geopolitical, socio-legal, and cultural scenarios. However, the choice of the author to use these websites-and especially the Internet as part of the data collection strategy was due to the important role they play in socialising youth (Kutsher, 2009). From one side, the Internet and web-sites, such as those mentioned in this chapter, have helped marginalised Muslims’ voices to express their beliefs; from the other side, the ‘virtual Islamic environment’ has shown its dark sides; the danger of radical virtual preachers is the most obvious one, considering the success of the Internet Islamic State propaganda and recruitment strategy. ⁴ These websites are effective tools for the researcher, as they allow immediate acquisition of data not mediated by interpretations, which are not always free from preconceived visions of Islam.

The analytical strategy of this chapter was also strengthened by fifteen interviews with Italian Muslim youth who are members of the Giovani Musulmani d’ Italia (the only major multi-ethnic Italian Muslim youth organization). Since 2012, the author of this chapter has engaged in a research focusing on Italian Muslim youth, marginalisation, and Islamophobia, and he is currently collecting data throughout Italy (c.f. Testa & Armstrong, 2012). The interviews were also complemented by discussions with two Imams (spiritual leaders) of two major Italian cities (Turin and Rome)

This strategy, which combines the virtual and the factual Muslim worlds, attempts to achieve a research outcome which is trustworthy and authentic (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

In terms of data analysis, the author has used the software Nvivo to make sense of the data retrieved; each source in full text (in the case of participants, the transcript of the interviews) was evaluated, and the main findings of each source were organised using table formats. The included sources focused on Islamic views of popular sports and the Islamic teachings’ compatibility with modern organised sport. The data retrieved from the interviews with Imams and participants were collected; direct quotes were transcribed word by word, and then they were inductively analysed and grouped into higher-order themes. Eight key themes were identified which reflect nine frequent patterns that emerged from the respondents’ interviews, the spiritual leaders’ comments, the online Fatâwâ, and the excerpts retrieved from the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the Hadith. The key themes are indicated in Table 2.1.

The results of the analysis were tested via participants’ validation and negative case analysis. The draft of the chapter was shared with members of the GMI, British Muslim colleagues, and UK Muslim university students.

Table 2.1

Themes
Sport – HEALTH
Sport as a distraction to Islam
Sport and gender modesty (both genders)
Sport and Islamophobic sentiments
Sport and violence
Sport and obsession and commercialisation
Sport vs. Shari’a
Sport and counter-radicalisation

The framework: making sense of Islam

The term ‘Islam’ means peace, humility, and obedience. ⁵ A Muslim worships Allah (God) without any intermediaries like, for instance, the Catholic saints. ‘Being a Muslim means to submit to the will of Allah and to live by the Qur’an words following as role model the Prophet Mohammad who is considered by the Muslims as God’s final messenger to mankind’ (Imam–Turin mosque). Muslims must observe the five Islam pillars, which are the basic obligations of Islam: they must believe in one God (Allah) and that the prophet Mohammad is His Messenger; Muslims must carry out the five daily prayers; they must offer the Zakat (compulsory alms to help the poor and needy); they must fast during Ramadan; and they must also travel (Hajj) to visit the holy Ka’ba (the house of God) in Makkah at least once in their lives (Imam–Turin mosque).

Islam requests believers to conform to a set of laws of God (Shari’a), which govern the behaviour of the individuals and Muslim communities. The Shari’a does not only focus on the spiritual domain but also on the social, political, and economic ones. The Islamic faith and its practices, laws, and jurisprudence are represented by the knowledge which can be found mainly in the Qur’an and Sunnah (and in the Hadith); these sources explain the way the Prophet Mohammad lived his life. Muslims consider the Qur’an the word of God revealed to the Prophet more than fourteen centuries ago and expressed in Arabic. The third source of precepts lies in the consensus of Muslim scholars in the absence of explicit and decisive recommendations (Opeloye, 1995; Caner & Caner, 2002).

Despite Islam being one of the most followed worldwide religions, there are many differences in the literature about its nature and its beliefs; this is due in large measure to the existence of different representations of this faith mediated by cultural and ethnic influences. The traditional distinction of Islam under different names (especially the difference between the vision of Islam of the majority Muslim Sunnis and the minority the Shiites) ⁶ has made its analysis more complex.

At times, academic inquiries have also somewhat complicated this already intricate situation. From time to time, Western academic interpretations of Islam have re-defined this religion; this process has been reflected by the use of terms such as ‘ev...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• List of contributors
• Introduction
• PART I Understanding sport in Islam
• PART II Gender, body and culture
• PART III Sport and politics of identity
• PART IV Sport development and sport for development
• Conclusion
• Index