Transnational Social Work

Opportunities and Challenges of a Global Profession

Bartley, Allen, Beddoe, Liz

• Publisher: Policy Press
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781447333388
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Ciencias sociales
• Subtopic: Trabajo social

This unique book provides an international comparison of labour markets, migrant professionals and immigration policies, and their interaction in relation to social work. Case studies based on the latest research from the UK, Ireland, Canada, New Zealand and Australia allow readers to make critical comparisons and gain understanding of the global nature of the social work profession. Detailed analysis covers the opportunities and challenges presented by labour market mobility, the implications for social justice and discussion of the experiences and perceptions of transnational social workers. Essential reading for social work educators, academics and professionals, this book will also inform the development of relevant policy, professional, and educational responses to the phenomenon of transnational social work mobility.

Part One:

Setting the transnational context

TWO

Opportunities and challenges of a global profession: an international perspective

Karen Lyons

Introduction

Social work is generally understood to be an essentially 'local' activity, rooted in the socio-economic conditions and political and legal systems of a particular country. Social workers generally intervene when problems occur at the interface between individuals, families and communities, and their environments. Some aspects of human functioning (including relationships) might be regarded as universal, but behaviours are likely to be affected by the cultural traditions of a whole society or by the norms of subgroups within it. Thus, there is an expectation that social workers 'understand' the local context and are 'able to communicate with' people in a particular locality.

However, over the past century, social work has been increasingly accepted as also having an international dimension and is, on occasion, even transnational in some of its practices. This has become more pronounced with the recognition of globalisation as a process that pervades all aspects of life in all societies (to a greater or lesser extent) and of the interdependency that ensues. Many social problems can now be understood as being global in scope – and perhaps having international origins – as well as having distinctive impacts on local populations (Healy and Link, 2012; Lyons et al, 2012; Lyons, 2015).

Migration, while not a new phenomenon, is a particular feature of contemporary life in relation to the scale of population mobility and the number of countries between which people now move. Distinctions are sometimes made between 'asylum seekers' (who may, in due course, qualify under United Nations [UN] definitions as refugees) and 'economic migrants', with the assumption that this is an unwanted move for the first group but a personal choice for the second, resulting in them being labelled as 'deserving' or 'undeserving' of official help. However, these are simplistic and unhelpful dichotomies as many people who leave their home countries can be regarded as being somewhere on a continuum of 'forced migration' from conflict, persecution and environmental causes through to crippling economic hardship. Migration, in turn, contributes to the interdependency of different countries, communities and families, while also persuading governments and international bodies to take steps to promote (or prevent) different forms of migration or the movement of particular groups or individuals (Fiddian-Qasmiyeh et al, 2014).

As mentioned, international labour mobility is one aspect of migration and is itself a diverse phenomenon, which has given rise to international conventions and policies, as well as bilateral and multilateral agreements. Workers in professional fields may be seen as having a privileged status in relation to the wider body of those migrating for work reasons since they are presumed to have desirable skills that are transferable, and there may be particular incentives for them to move to different countries. In the case of social work, the extent to which international labour mobility is a personal and/or professional choice, a response to a particular recruitment drive, or influenced by other 'push/pull' factors is variable and is not fully researched. However, like the social care workers included in a study by Christensen and Guldvik (2014), they are presumed to have agency, rather than being the victims of circumstance.

Over the last few decades, there has been some research (reported in English-language publications) into the motivations and experiences of internationally recruited doctors, teachers and nurses (and others in allied health and care professions), as well as social workers (Lyons and Littlechild, 2006; Walsh et al, 2010; Bartley et al, 2011). Indications from some of this literature are that transnational social workers may share similarities, in both motivation and experiences, with these other occupational groups (eg Winkleman Gleed, 2006; Williams and Balaz, 2008; Guo and Singh, 2009). However, the particular nature of social work, with its emphasis on relationships and communication (whether with individuals, groups or communities), and the need for knowledge of the national policy, economic and legal contexts, may make social work harder to 'transplant' to different countries and presents more challenges to transnational social workers.

This chapter: presents the factors that contribute to the idea of social work as a global profession and suggests that international perspectives are relevant even in local practice; discusses the range of problems typically addressed by social workers and the extent to which these have international as well as local dimensions; considers the strengths of, and challenges facing, transnational social workers; and presents a short concluding section about the particular contribution that this sector of the workforce makes to the internationalisation of social work.

Social work as a global profession with international perspectives

The beginnings of social work's recognition as an international profession occurred over a century ago, and were formally signified by a world conference in Paris in 1928 (Lyons and Lawrence, 2009). This, in turn, laid the basis for the three membership organisations that, today, represent social work globally. The International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW, 2016) has a membership of over 400 schools worldwide (as well as individual and associate members) and a primary focus on professional education, while the International Council on Social Welfare (ICSW, 2016) has organisational members from the not-for-profit sector/non-governmental organisations (NGOs) from over 70 countries, primarily concerned with activities and advocacy in the social welfare, social policy and social development fields. The International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW, 2016) has members (national associations) from 116 countries representing over 500,000 social workers. Recently, the three organisations, recognising their complementary strengths and the need to raise the international profile of social work and its role in contributing to social policy agendas, have produced a 'global agenda' and are in the process of establishing 'regional observatories' (Truell and Jones, 2014).

These three organisations are not the only international bodies in social work, but they are perhaps the best known and longest established. In addition, less formal, more fluid and sometimes time-limited transnational academic, practice and research networks have periodically (and certainly over the last few decades) also been significant in raising the profile of social work at regional and international levels and contributing to the sharing and development of knowledge, including about comparative welfare and social work organisation and practice. However, for the purposes of this chapter, the focus here is upon the role of the three international bodies in contributing to our understanding of social work as a global profession and their efforts to establish international definitions, standards and guidelines that help us to identify common concerns and goals.

Since 2000, the IASSW and IFSW have collaborated to produce three important international documents, the first of which was the 'International definition of social work': the initial definition was agreed in 2000 and has recently been revised as the 'Global definition of social work' (IFSW, 2014a). The 2000 definition became the basis for a 'Statement of ethical principles' and the 'Global standards for the education and training of the social work profession' (both were issued in 2004) (see IFSW, 2016), both of which, together with the global definition, have continuing relevance, including in the context of international labour mobility in social work.

The first two sentences of the 'Global definition' state that:

social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline which promotes social change and development; social cohesion and the empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. (IFSW, 2014a)

Having this global definition of social work suggests that there is a shared, international understanding about the nature of social work – and thus the roles that social workers undertake in different national jurisdictions – facilitating international mobility and transnational social work. The definition itself is very broadly framed in order to take into account the wide diversity of national (and sometimes more local) understandings, mandates and practices of social workers, and its authors suggest that the definition may be amplified at national and regional levels. However, the extent to which students at the qualifying stage are informed about this definition and have analysed its possible application in their own (national) situation – or considered its relevance to other jurisdictions – can be questioned, as can its inclusion in different forms of post-qualifying training. For example, the findings from a global survey of schools of social work carried out by the IASSW suggest that 'international social work' does not feature significantly (if at all) in the curricula of most qualifying programmes (Baretta Herman et al, 2016).

Similar concerns can be expressed about the 'Statement of ethical principles', while the universality (or otherwise) of particular values in social work has been considered by various authors (eg Healy, 2007; Hugman, 2013). As with the 'Global definition', the 'Statement of ethical values' is underpinned by a commitment to human rights and social justice, and while these may be uncritically accepted as common to social work internationally, the national conditions in which social workers operate may pose challenges in relation to respect for, and promotion of, both these values. At a general level, it has been suggested that the 'Statement of ethical principles' reflects a Western view that privileges the rights of individuals over the emphasis more often placed on family obligations and community interests reflected in the cultures of countries of the Global South. On another level, examples of value conflicts occur in relation to the treatment of some subgroups in society. For instance, freedom of expression about sexuality is now widely accepted (relating to social attitudes and legal and policy terms) in most Western countries, although there may be some people within national populations (including some social workers) who, perhaps for religious reasons, would still deny this freedom. In other countries, any deviation from heterosexuality is considered to be outside the accepted norms of human behaviour and might even be illegal, thus denying rights to people who would otherwise identify as part of the worldwide lesbian, gay, trans and bisexual (LGBT) community. While persecution (actual or feared) on grounds of sexuality may be a motivating factor for some people to leave particular jurisdictions, it is far from universally accepted by the governments of receiving countries as a legitimate basis for granting asylum to some migrants. There is anecdotal evidence to suggest that some LGBT social workers themselves choose to seek work in countries that they perceive as having more tolerant social attitudes, particularly if this is backed by legislation against discrimination on grounds of sexuality, though it is not known whether this proposition has been formally researched. However, it is also possible that some transnational social workers bring with them prejudices about, for example, homosexuality that would not have been challenged in social work training in their countries of origin, notwithstanding a policy statement by the IFSW (2014b) advocating for the inclusion of LGBT people and asserting the responsibility of social workers to protect and promote their rights and well-being.

Finally, regarding overarching statements framing social work at an international level, the document describing 'Global standards for social work education and training' sets out a range of standards in nine areas, including those related to the core curriculum, expectations regarding fieldwork and the qualifications of professional staff. The document is prefaced by a recognition of the 'context-specific realities' in which professional education for social work internationally takes place and an early commentary on the document described it as 'aspirational' rather than having a regulatory function (Sewpaul and Jones, 2004). Again, it is possible that having international standards might add weight to the efforts of professional educators to secure recognition and resources for social work programmes within their own higher education systems, but it cannot guarantee international conformity in the curricula and standards achieved by students on qualification. This can lead to a false sense of security about presumed similarities when considering how well equipped transnational social workers are to work in another jurisdiction, and, in fact, most countries with well-established professional education programmes also have regulatory bodies with the competence to assess the comparability of 'overseas qualifications' presented by aspiring transnational social workers.

Local and universal problems: different approaches and organisational issues

Notwithstanding the limitations of international statements about and aspirations for social work in the face of the wide diversity in socio-economic, political-legal and cultural conditions in which social work is practised, it is possible to identify a range of social issues that social workers are commonly expected to address. Poverty was the basis for the origins of social work in the West and is currently a characteristic of many of the people with whom social workers interact worldwide (Cox and Pawar, 2006; Desai and Solas, 2012). Even in the Global North, relative poverty is still an issue, although, for example, in the European Union, economic insecurity has more recently been labelled as part of a wider system of social exclusion and marginalisation of particular populations (Lyons and Huegler, 2012). People in such groups might be identified as members of a minority ethnic population or having a (particular kind of) disability and there are often related issues, such as poor living conditions, limited employment opportunities and health concerns. With regard to the latter, Bywaters and Napier (2008) authored a paper that formed the basis for a policy statement by the IFSW and an international network concerned with the significance of health issues and the role that social workers may play in contributing to policies and practices addressing the relevance of this issue for many aspects of social work practice, while Lyons et al (2006) had previously identified the international dimension of this issue.

In the West, social work strategies are frequently related to the assessed needs of individuals and families: workers have developed specialist skills (and sometimes have additional qualifications) and specialist agencies have often been established to address particular problems, such as child protection, elder abuse, substance misuse, homelessness or mental illness. In the Global South, policy concerns might focus on developing a social protection programme for a national population (Drolet, 2016) and a more community-oriented approach is represented in social development policies and projects. Social work 'specialisms', as individually tailored responses to the problems of particular population groups, are generally less in evidence, although they are sometimes addressed through the efforts of NGOs. The needs of vast populations in countries such as India or the Philippines have implications for the education and roles of social workers, as well as their expectations about living standards and social work practices if they migrate to a Western country.

There are substantial differences between the structural and cultural determinants of the environments within which social work is practised even among 'developed' (as opposed to 'developing') countries (Nielson, 2011; Payne, 2012). For instance, major differences are evident between Europe and the US in the organisation and funding of various aspects of health and social care, affecting the role of social workers in these sectors (Hoffler and Clark, 2012; Zavirsek and Lawrence, 2012). The entrenchment of neoliberal policies and the interests of capitalism have affected even the traditional 'welfare states', such as those long established in New Zealand, the Nordic countries and the UK, and the welfare systems of Canada and Australia have been similarly impacted (Teeple, 2000). The cultural aspect has been alluded to earlier and affects the extent to which societies expect family members or voluntary (including self-help and religious) organisations to address the needs of vulnerable people in the community. In addition, national populations often have minority groups, including indigenous people, with different expectations and experiences of welfare systems (see Baines, this volume). These factors affect the roles of social workers and the resources and recognition available to them in particular countries in ways that are, perhaps, at variance with those of social workers who train in one country and work in another.

Over the last few decades, the IFSW, in particular, has produced a number of policy statements covering a wide variety of topics of importance to social work policies and practices. These result from particular motions put forward at general meetings, reflecting issues that have gained international, as well as national, importance. So, for instance, in 2014, a statement was issued on the protection of children from all forms of sexual abuse. This not only recognised the previously nationally identified concerns about incest and other forms of child sexual abuse, but also highlighted the more recent concerns about the (international) trafficking of children and young people for commercial sexual exploitation. Earlier policy statements have addressed a wide range of issues, including 'globalisation and the environment', 'displaced people', 'poverty eradication', 'ind...