Trust, Tourism Development and Planning

Robin Nunkoo, Stephen L.J. Smith

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9780415826013
• eBook ISBN: 9781135972493
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Hospitality, Travel & Tourism Industry
• Index: Business

The dynamics of trust and distrust are central to understanding modern society, social relations, and development processes. However, numerous studies suggest that societal trust and citizen's trust in government and its institutions are on the decline, challenging the legitimacy of government and leading to an undemocratic and unsustainable form of development. Recognizing its importance, the authors for the first time situate trust within the context of tourism development and planning.

This volume discusses trust in tourism from different yet intrinsically connected perspectives. Chapters review how diminishing societal trust may have adversely affected tourism planning systems, the role of trust in good tourism governance and sustainable tourism, how trust can be used as a facilitator of participatory tourism planning, political trust in tourism institutions, power and how tourism development can be a basis for trust creation among society members by using social capital theory. In addition, a final section on 'Researching Trust in Tourism Development' means that readers are not only provided a thorough theoretical framework on trust and an understanding of its importance for sustainable tourism and good governance of the sector, but also methodological aspects of research on trust in the context of tourism development and planning.

This significant volume is valuable reading for students, academics and researchers interested in tourism development and planning.

1
Trust, tourism development, and planning

Robin Nunkoo and Stephen L. J. Smith

Trust is a complex construct that is difficult to define and operationalize (Simpson, 2007) because there are so many different ways of conceptualizing and defining it. Seppanen et al. (2007) catalogued more than 70 definitions. This does not stop social scientists from offering definitions; it is just that there are numerous and sometimes conflicting conceptualizations of trust. Consequently, it has remained an elusive term in the social science literature and has often been used in different and not always compatible ways. However, despite such divergences, it is universally accepted that trust is a psychological condition defined as “a psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of another” (Rousseau et al., 1998, p. 395). The psychological dimensions of trust are embedded in the majority of definitions put forward by researchers from different social science disciples. For example, Garfinkel (1963) and Luhmann (1988) considered trust as a general attitude or expectancy about other people and the social systems in which they are embedded. Other researchers suggest that trust is a more complex and multidimensional construct comprising affective and motivational components (Bromiley and Cummings, 1996). However, some social scientists argue that psychological definitions of trust are insufficient in explaining trust because they are narrowly too cognitive and ignore the emotional and social influences on trust decisions (Kramer, 1999). Consequently, these researchers suggest that it is important to conceptualize trust in terms of individuals’ choice behavior in various trust dilemma situations (Miller, 1992). March (1994) argued that an advantage of conceptualizing trust as a choice behavior relates to the fact that decisions become observable behaviors and noted that such a conceptualization of trust fits well with existing conceptual frameworks useful for empirical testing and theoretical development.

Studies on trust in the social science literature can be grouped into two categories. Early work on the subject adopted a dispositional (person-centered) view to trust and considered trust as general beliefs and attitudes about the degree to which other people are likely to be reliable, cooperative, or helpful in daily life contexts (Rotter, 1971). The second category of studies on trust (which emerged in the early 1980s) conceptualized and measured trust in specific partners and relationships (interpersonal trust) (Holmes and Rempel, 1989). From this perspective, trust is defined as a psychological state or orientation of an actor (the trustor) toward a specific partner (the trustee) with whom the actor is in some way interdependent to attain valued outcomes or resources. From this perspective, trust stimulates cooperation among actors (Moorman et al., 1992), creates goodwill that preserves the relationship (Kumar, 1996), decreases fear and greed (Hwang and Willem, 1997), reduces risk in the transaction (Morgan and Hunt, 1994), and enhances the partners’ satisfaction with and commitment to the exchange (Anderson and Narus, 1990; Morgan and Hunt, 1994). Thus, trust is not only about a set of positive expectations, but it also includes the willingness to act on those beliefs (Luhmann, 1979). These trust beliefs shape attitudes and behaviors of the actors in social exchanges (Sheppard and Sherman, 1998).

Trust, tourism development, and planning

Trust is essential for effective planning and development, as Laurian (2009, p. 369) noted:

Trust is a central element of planning practice because the profession is positioned at the nexus of public and private interests, has a crucial role in the contested management of space, and seeks to promote democratic governance and public participation in local decision making.

Trust as a fundamental ingredient is the basis on which planning agencies and other stakeholders’ rely as it creates the necessary conditions on the basis of which successful partnerships and collaboration take place in development planning (Connick and Innes, 2003; Höppner, 2009; Kumar and Paddison, 2000; O’Riordan and Ward, 1997). Thus, trust highly influences the success or failure of planning and development processes.

In the tourism sector, especially in democratic societies, trust helps governments pass legislation, make tourism plans, invest in public and public–private partnerships, and have reasonably smooth relationships among governmental organizations and, indeed, different governments, and between government and citizens. For example, trust in tourism institutions has been found to influence public support for tourism development in developing countries (e.g. Nunkoo et al., 2012; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2012) as well as developed ones (e.g. Nunkoo and Smith, 2013). The existence of a reasonable level of trust among key tourism players and between those players and the society in which they operate significantly affects the nature and magnitude of environmental, social, and economic impacts and other strategies developed to minimize negative consequences. Empirical evidence suggests a recursive relationship between trust and public perceptions of tourism development. While in some contexts public trust has been found to shape residents’ perceptions of the benefits and costs of tourism development (e.g. Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2011), perceptions of tourism are influenced by public trust in tourism institutions in other situations (e.g. Nunkoo et al., 2012; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2012; Nunkoo and Smith, 2013).

At a more commercial level, for customers and tourism businesses, trust facilitates business decisions that involve consumer relations, contracts and interactions with suppliers, partnerships, licensing, and long-term business dealings. Trust also shapes employer–employee relationships, facilitates the hiring and retention of employees, promote investments, and supports partnerships among businesses and between businesses and government/nongovernmental agencies in the tourism sector. It is not that where there is little trust these activities cannot happen, but where there is little trust these activities are much more difficult and time-consuming – and less likely to be successful. Nevertheless, a two-way relationship between trust and tourism development can be established. While successful and sustainable tourism development and planning requires that tourism stakeholders trust each other because “trust lubricates cooperation,” tourism networks also foster trust among development participants (Putnam et al., 1993, p. 171).

The study of trust has evolved over time, from an early focus on the origins of an individual’s willingness (or lack of willingness) to trust to a stronger emphasis on interpersonal dynamics and the social/organizational determinants in the support (or destruction) of trust. However, despite such developments, the importance of trust and the number of authors who write about trust, there is very little empirical research on the role of trust in tourism planning and development. This book explores the phenomenon of trust in a variety of contexts by a number of international experts. The main body of the book begins with a discussion (Chapter 2, by Edwards and Nunkoo) on the need and importance of trust in tourism planning and development. In this chapter, Edwards and Nunkoo contextualize and define the concept of trust and discuss the various dimensions of trust relevant to tourism planning and development. Edwards and Nunkoo provide a useful classification of trust, including one based on the formation of trust, such as a rational calculation of benefits and costs associated with tourism development. The contributors discuss the need for trust in tourism planning from the perspectives of community and social life, stakeholders’ power in tourism, good governance, and democratic legitimacy. Edwards and Nunkoo further explore the necessity for trust in tourism development by exploring the crisis of trust that has developed as a result of a risk, pluralistic, right-based, and liberal society.

In Chapter 3, Bramwell explores the relationships among trust, governance, and sustainable tourism. As he notes, politics is never far beneath the surface of the formation and implementation of policies and practices that determine to a significant degree whether tourism in a jurisdiction – from city to multinational bloc – is sustainable. Bramwell discusses the nature of tourism governance and sustainable tourism, and, like Edwards and Nunkoo, he argues that there is consideration of the specific character of trust within tourism governance, including its relations with political legitimacy. Bramwell elaborates on various contextual relationships between sustainable tourism and trust. He argues that questions of trust and mistrust are highly dependent on context and that the relationships among trust, governance, and sustainable tourism are far more complex than is sometimes assumed.

Mair, in Chapter 4, explores the nature of participatory tourism planning. She is interested in what constitutes a “community” and how community members are able to participate in the planning process. She explores the nature of planning and the importance of involving community members in planning endeavours, and concludes by asking whether “sustainable tourism” is more about sustaining a community or sustaining the sector. She looks at the various approaches to tourism planning and highlights the fact that collaborative planning, or participatory planning in her vocabulary, is predicated on citizens and denizens having trust in planners and decision makers as well as planners and decision makers trusting “ordinary” residents. Mair discusses how participatory planning fosters trust among stakeholders.

Moscardo considers the complex relationship among tourism development, social capital, and trust. In Chapter 5, she argues that there are forms of capital beyond economic and financial such as human and natural. However, she also acknowledges that the idea of extending the concept of capital to economic and financial realms is controversial. In this context, she describes three approaches to deciding the determinants of “a good life”: (1) individual freedom of choice, (2) a subjective quality-of-life model, and (3) the “good society” model, which situates a good life in the context of a healthy, stable society. She reviews literature on social capital, and her discussion highlights the need to be more careful in defining what social capital is, how it is generated, how it is used, and what it is used for. Within this discussion, she recognizes trust as an important factor contributing to the development of social capital. After conceptualizing trust in the context of social capital development, she notes that trust which is often considered as part of social capital is, in fact, distinct from the latter. In this chapter, Moscardo articulates a framework linking tourism development to trust and social capital, and notes the importance of stakeholders developing a shared understanding of what values and goals are fundamental to a destination.

In Chapter 6, Hall addresses the topic of human security in tourism with specific reference to climate change. While concern over security is often associated with issues such as criminal activity, war, and terrorism, he adds climate change and environmental disasters to this list of challenges. In this chapter, Hall argues that trust in the context of environmental change is even more significant than in other tourism planning contexts. Like other authors in this volume, Hall asserts that the role of tourism planning is not to maximize benefits for the sector but to secure the interests of destination communities. The combination of environmental change with the challenges imposed by poverty make planning all the more urgent, from local to international scales, and from the individual to the community. His discussion of security is explored in the context of different forms of governance, including possible planning interventions at different scales of planning. Adaptation to and mitigation of environmental change require appropriate policy, technological, and behavioral innovations that, in turn, require trust for success. And with Moscardo, Hall emphasizes the need for shared values and reciprocal or cooperative actions, and, more importantly, trust.

Distrust in the impartiality and fairness of decision makers in a destination can result in the withdrawal of residents from offering support for tourism development or participating in planning initiatives. This issue is examined by Yüksel, Yüksel, Culha, Güzel, and İşçi in Chapter 7. The contributors examine people who for whatever reason are excluded from tourism development planning. The authors focus on planning in developing countries, with a particular look at clientelism – a form of social organization in which a powerful “patron” promises benefits to relatively powerless “clients” in exchange for loyalty and votes and corruption. They propose a series of propositions describing the forces to which local residents will become involved and supportive of tourism development – or oppose it. Fundamental to these propositions are elements of trust, reliability, transparency, accountability, and accessibility to institutions that make decisions.

In the penultimate chapter, Nunkoo extends the concept of trust to a political context. Given undisputable role of government in tourism development and planning as political economy approach suggests, Nunkoo argues that a democratic and sustainable form of tourism requires that residents’ trust government institutions involved in tourism policy making. He studies the notion of trust in the context of an exchange relationship between government and citizens. Using social exchange theory, institutional theory of political trust, and cultural theory of political trust, Nunkoo develops a conceptual framework that examines political trust in tourism and the relationship between the latter and community support for tourism development. He pays special attention to the correlates of political trust and considers which aspects of institutions and societal culture are likely to have a determining impact on the levels of citizens’ and denizens’ trust in government in tourism development. He offers several propositions that deserve empirical attention. Nunkoo concludes that the concept of political trust in tourism offers several opportunities for research and argues that it can be better understood if studied from different, often conflicting, theoretical perspectives.

The final chapter, by Saunders, Lyon, and Möllering, provides insights into methodological issues and concepts related to researching trust in the context of tourism. The authors note that the diversity of methods and concepts poses challenges for researchers, but the diversity provides the opportunity to draw from different traditions and experiences. They offer an overview of the leading empirical (quantitative) and subjective (qualitative) methods as well as mixed research designs. The choice of methods is influenced by the researcher’s assumptions and preferred epistemology. Further, the focus of research may be on the trustors’ intentions, the trustworthiness of the person/agency being trusted, the act of trusting, or the process of developing trust.

The perspectives taken by our various authors reflect the diversity of approaches and foci related to trust scholarship. To start, there is the topic of not just defining trust but offering classifications of trust – what types, how are they formed, and so on. Several authors offer classifications of trust such as trust based on a rational process, a function of personal experience, or a dynamic based on formal control mechanisms. Other authors couch research on trust in the framework of social exchange theory. In other words, they look at trust as the result of a process involving mutual agreements, understandings, and a quid pro quo dynamic. Some authors reflect on a number of...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of illustrations
• List of contributors
• 1 Trust, tourism development, and planning
• 2 The need for and crisis of trust in tourism planning and development
• 3 Trust, governance and sustainable tourism
• 4 Trust and participatory tourism planning
• 5 Social capital, trust and tourism development
• 6 Tourism planning and human security: knowledge and intervention construction and trust in “solving” environmental change
• 7 Centrally formulated tourism development plans: evaluations, attitudes, and behaviors of excluded community members
• 8 Correlates of political trust and support for tourism: development of a conceptual framework
• 9 Researching trust in tourism: methodological issues and associated concerns
• Index