Animals in the Ancient World from A to Z

Kenneth F. Kitchell Jr.

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9780415392440
• eBook ISBN: 9781317577423
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Ancient History
• Index: History

The ancient Greeks and Romans lived in a world teeming with animals. Animals were integral to ancient commerce, war, love, literature and art. Inside the city they were found as pets, pests, and parasites. They could be sacred, sacrificed, liminal, workers, or intruders from the wild. Beyond the city domesticated animals were herded and bred for profit and wild animals were hunted for pleasure and gain alike. Specialists like Aristotle, Aelian, Pliny and Seneca studied their anatomy and behavior. Geographers and travelers described new lands in terms of their animals. Animals are to be seen on every possible artistic medium, woven into cloth and inlaid into furniture. They are the subject of proverbs, oaths and dreams. Magicians, physicians and lovers turned to animals and their parts for their crafts. They paraded before kings, inhabited palaces, and entertained the poor in the arena. Quite literally, animals pervaded the ancient world from A-Z.

In entries ranging from short to long, Kenneth Kitchell offers insight into this commonly overlooked world, covering representative and intriguing examples of mammals, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates. Familiar animals such as the cow, dog, fox and donkey are treated along with more exotic animals such as the babirussa, pangolin, and dugong. The evidence adduced ranges from Minoan times to the Late Roman Empire and is taken from archaeology, ancient authors, inscriptions, papyri, coins, mosaics and all other artistic media. Whenever possible reasoned identifications are given for ancient animal names and the realities behind animal lore are brought forth. Why did the ancients think hippopotamuses practiced blood letting on themselves? How do you catch a monkey? Why were hyenas thought to be hermaphroditic? Was there really a vampire moth? Entries are accompanied by full citations to ancient authors and an extensive bibliography.

Of use to Classics students and scholars, but written in a style designed to engage anyone interested in Greco-Roman antiquity, Animals in the Ancient World from A to Z reveals the extent and importance of the animal world to the ancient Greeks and Romans. It answers many questions, asks several more, and seeks to stimulate further research in this important field.

A

Achlis See ELK.

Addax Pliny (HN 8.79.214, 11.45.124) mentions the strepsiceros (from the Greek, “twisted-horn”) twice, saying it is an import into Italy, presumably for the games, and telling us that the African name for the animal is addax. This is almost surely the screwhorn antelope, or addax (Addax nasomaculatus). The addax is a desert antelope often found near the ORYX. It is currently critically endangered and its fewer than 250 wild specimens are found scattered throughout south Algeria, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Chad. It once roamed all of northern Africa and would have been well known to the Romans. It has spectacular, curved horns that arch over its back, reaching 3.6 feet in a male. It has a pale body and a brown patch on its nose. Addax are currently preserved in zoos and hunting parks. Pliny also describes its horns and claims they are used to make lyres. This fact would seem to make the names ORUS and addax synonyms.

Keller, 1.283, 206–97; Taylor, B., “Bovids II: Hartebeests, Wildebeests, Gemsboks, Oryx, and Reedbucks (Hippotraginae),” Grzimek, vol. 16: Mammals V, 40; Toynbee, 146–47.

Agathodaemon Greek: ἀγαθοδαίμων (agathodaimōn); Latin: agathodaimon. Aelius Lampridius, the author of the Latin biography of Elagabalus (SHA 28.3, cf. Turcan, 219–20) relates that the emperor, who was especially fond of exotic animals, kept Egyptian dracunculi (small snakes) at Rome, which the Egyptians call agathodaemones, “good spirits.” Magie (2.160, ad loc.) identifies this as the healing snake of the god Knuphis (Dasen and Nagy). Pearn has suggested that the origin of Aesclepius’ healing serpent may be traced, at least in part, to this snake. At Greek symposia, a cup was passed around and, as each guest drank, he uttered “agathou daimonos,” “of the good daemon” (Tarn, 210). The agathodaemōn appears on many Roman imperial coins issued in Egypt. Leitz (31–33) has collected the testimonia. Identifications include Telescopus fallax (G&St., 521) or a type of cobra (Bodson, 72). See also Philoumenos (29) (with the TYPHLIAS).

Bodson, 1986a; Dasen and Nagy, 2012; G&St., 521; Magie, 1921; Pearn, 2011; Tarn, 1928; Turcan, 1993.

Agrōstēs Greek: ἀγρώστης (agrōstēs, “wild one”). Nicander (Th. 734–37) compares this spider to the shape of a WOLF SPIDER and lists its prey. Its bite, he says, is harmless. G&S (ad loc., p. 184) list proposed identifications of it as Aranea speciosa, Lycosa tarantula, and Linyphia triangularis. They also cite earlier scholars who identify it is a wolf spider and Beavis (51) lists it with these spiders, although the Greek is clear that it only resembles one (cf. LSJ, s.v.).

Coin of Antoninus Pius, AD 138–161, from Alexandria. The reverse shows an agathodaemon serpent, wearing skhent crown. Photo courtesy of CNG Coins.

Ailouros Greek: αἴλoυρoς Commonly translated as CAT but, as Jennison (183–87) has demonstrated, this is not always accurate. He also hints that Aristotle (Hist. an. 6.580a.24–27) uses this word for what might be the pine marten (WEASEL).

Akontias See IACULUS, KENCHRIAS.

Akris See GRASSHOPPER.

Ammobates “Sand-goer,” alternative name for the DIPSAS according to Aelian (NA 6.51, cf. Bodson (104).

Bodson, 2012.

Ammodytes Greek: ἀμμοδύτης; Latin: hammodytes. Philoumenos (22.1) describes this serpent as follows: length more than a cubit (1.5 feet); sandy color; very hard tail that is “split from above” (the Greek and the text are both in doubt here); rather wide jaws. He says that some also call it the κϵχρíας (kechrias, KENCHRIAS). Its bite kills in three days. Strabo (17.1.21) places it in Egypt but does not, as LSJ suggests, equate it to the DIPSAS. Lucan briefly mentions that its sandy color provides camouflage (9.715–16; Wick, 2. 294–95). G&St. (523) identified it as Vipera lebetina (today’s Macrovipera). Wick suggests identification as the Avicenna viper (Cerastes vipera) or the horned viper (Cerastes cerastes). Leitz (67–72) rejects G&St. and treats it as a hornless version of the CERASTES. Most recently, see the study by Bodson in reference to the DIPSAS (105–15).

See also MYAGROS.

Bodson, 2012; Wick, 2004.

Amphisbaena Greek: ἀμϕίσβαινα (amphisbaina, “Goes-both-ways”); Latin: amphisbaena. Alternative names: ἀμϕίσϕινα, ἀμϕίσμαινα, αμϕίσθμαινα (G&S, 178 on 384). West points out a reference to this folkloric snake as early as 671 BC in a report by the Assyrian king Ershaddon and claims the snake may be the genus of sand boas (Eryx) which snake charmers often tried to pass off as having two heads. The Arabian sand boa (E. jayakari) would be the best candidate geographically, but its tail tapers too much to be mistaken for a head. This species is notable for having its eyes on top of its head. Her claims that Assyrians later passed on the folktale to credulous Greek troops is ingenious but unconvincing. In Aeschylus (Ag. 1232f.) it is a symbol of perfidy. Its connotation in Aristophanes’ Storks (Pelargoi F457) is unknown. Nicander (Th. 372–83) describes it as having a chin at each end, says it molts early, is speckled and shiny, and is good for those with skin problems (cf. Pliny HN 8.35.85). G&S (177 on 372) pass on G&St.’s identification as Typhlops vermicularis, the very small European blind snake (Kley; SSW, 124; Wick, 2.299–300). Its range extends from Greece to Pakistan and it does, indeed, seem to have two identical ends, though neither really resembles a head. West rejects the identification since it tends to spend most of its time beneath ground, but Nicander (Th. 385f.) compares it specifically to earthworms. Philoumenos (27) specifies that it does not taper (true for Typhlops) and says it resembles the SKYTALĒ in all regards except that it can go in either direction, and gives antidotes for its bite. Pliny (ibid. and 30.43.128) also thinks it is poisonous but Typhlops is not. Such evidence indicates that the ancients had a real animal in mind. Another identification offered (West, G&S) is the genus Doliophis, more properly Calliophis, but these are located in the area of Malaysia. See also Lucan (9.719) and Ammianus Marcellinus 22.15.27, who both think it is venomous; Isidore (Etym. 12.4.20).

Kley, 2004; Leitz, 20–21; Morel, 1928, 353–54; West, 2006; Wick, 2004.

Ant Greek: μύρμηξ (myrmēx); Latin: formica. On variants of the name see Beavis (198–201) and Gil Fernández (23–24).

Ants (family Formicidae) belong to the order Hymenoptera and are thus related to bees and wasps, also social insects. Their 8,000 species inhabit virtually the entire world and their diversity is stunning. AntWeb (http://www.antweb.org/accessed June 6, 2013) lists 277 species in Greece and 41 genera in Italy. Hundreds of species and scores of genera may be found in areas as small as 250 square meters and the sheer numbers of individuals in a colony can reach into the millions (Hölldobler and Wilson, 1–3). They embrace a multitude of lifestyles, illustrated by names such as carpenter ants, fungus growers, leafcutters, honey pot ants, slave maker ants, aphid herding ants and weaver ants. A colony consists of a fertile, egg-laying winged queen, a very few fertile winged males called “drones,” and multitudes of sterile females who carry out the work of the colony. The colony’s lifecycle is as follows (Hölldobler and Wilson, 143f.). New colonies are founded by swarms of flying females and winged males. The males and most queens die following insemination, but a surviving inseminated queen will next construct the first phase of her nest and rear her first brood. Soon worker ants begin the business of running the colony and the female simply produces eggs which pass through larval and pupal stages before becoming adults.

The ancients speak about many varieties of ant, generally differentiating between those with and without wings (Arist. Hist. an. 523b20, Part. an. 643b2f.). The winged variety called the ἱππϵύς μύρμηξ (hippeus myrmēx “horseman ant”) was not found in Sicily (Arist. Hist. an. 606a6; Pliny NH 11.36.110; Beavis, 199, on the manuscripts). Other names refer to the ants’ occupations (e.g. farming, “mining,” harvesting flowers), size, or description (Beavis 199–200). Pausanias’ “rather white” ants in Laconia may refer to TERMITES.

Ants and humans were among the Greeks’ “political” animals, meaning that they conduct themselves in an orderly manner designed for the common good, as if in a polis. Praise for this lifestyle is abundant (e.g. Arist. Hist. an. 488a10f., Plato Phaedo 82b; Plutarch Moralia 967d–68d; Aelian NA 2.25, 2.43; Pliny HN 11.36.108–11; Dio Chrysostom Orat. 40.32, 40) and extends to the military life (Sears). It follows, therefore, that ants became proverbial for good traits and are common in fables, most notably those stressing their providence in storing food (e.g. Babrius, 140; Perry, 443 no. 112). They were often thought of as portentous in reality and in dreams (e.g. Artemidorus, 1.24, 3.6, where winged and non-winged are differentiated; D&K, 43–44, Hünemörder).

The ants’ natural history was fairly well known. Aristotle observed them above ground (Hist. an. 622b 24–27) and apparently dug up nests and described the growth of the eggs into larvae (Hist. an. 555a19–22). The intricacy of their tunnels, the sharing of work and tireless industry are singled out for praise. Pliny (HN 11.36.108–10) praises their strength and has seen them “communicating.” See Beavis (201–07) for more. There is even an epitaph for an ant by Antipater of Sidon (Herrlinger, no. 5 = Anth. Pal. 7.209). The ancients also knew the ant could be a pest, robbing granary floors as well as sown seeds. They were used in folk medicine to cure everything from warts to poisonous bites. The ant appears on Greek coins and gems, e.g. crawling on an ear of grain on coins of Metapontum (IBK, 7.24–25).

See also INDIAN ANT, MYRMĒKEION, MYRMĒKOLEŌN.

Gil Fernández, 1959; Herrlinger, 1930; Hölldobler and Wilson, 1990; Hünemörder, s.v. “Ants”; Keller, 2.416–21; Marx, A., “Ameise,” RE 1.1820–22; Morel, 1971; Perry, 1965; Sears, 2009–10.

Ant-lion See MYRMĒKOLEŌN.

Antelope The general name “antelope” technically refers to members of the order Artiodactylae, family Bovidae and subfamily Antilopinae, which itself contains seven (Atkins, 45–46) or 14 (WMW, 1134) genera and scores of species living in habitats ranging from forests to grass-lands and desert plateaus. They are small to medium-sized horned herbivores with slender neck and limbs, tawny upper bodies and white underbellies, often with a dark stripe above the belly. They are found throughout northern Africa and east, through Arabia and the Levant up to the Black Sea area and are distinguished by speed, gracefulness of movement, and soft eyes. There was a great deal of confusion in antiquity, as today, over the difference between an “antelope” and a “gazelle.” Gazelles form their own genus (Gazella) within Antilopinae, with three subgenera and 16 species, distinct from the genus Antilope (WMW, 1199f.). Common ones today include Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella thomsonii/Eudorcas thomsonii) and the dorcas gazelle (G. dorcas) but WMW lists ten to 12 species which the ancients would have encountered if one merely considers geography. Other animals which can easily be taken as an antelope, do not, in fact, reside in the Antilopinae subfamily. Examples the ancients would have known include the Arabian ORYX (Oryx leucoryx), which barely escaped extinction, and the Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana). Thus, the term “antelope” should be taken as a fairly general term in antiquity. In general, the ancients did try to distinguish between DEER and antelopes, but they gathered many animals under these broad terms and at times confused the terms themselves. Toynbee (145–46) points to three types of antelopes that were in PTOLEMY II’s famous procession (cf. Rice, 88–89). The first were pairs of κόλοι (sing. κόλος, KOLOS) drawing chariots. Next came ὄρυγες (sing. ὄρυξ, oryx), also hitched to chariots. Then came βούβαλοι (sing. βούβαλος BOUBALOS). Pliny and other Roman authors offer the following additional names of antelope-like animals: DAMMA, DORCAS, strepsiceros, PYGARGUS. A Roman mosaic from the Museum of Sousse shows a profusion of antelope and deer, differentiated by their horns, in an amphitheater setting (Blanchard-Lemée, 211, fig. 156).

Atkins, W.A., “Bovids III: Gazelles, Springboks, and Saiga Antelopes (Antilopinae),” Grzimek, vol. 16: Mammals V, 45–58; Blanchard-Lemée, 1996; Rice, 1983.

Aoudad Aelian (NA 14.16) describes at length some “wild goats” of Libya. They are the size of oxen but are covered all over with long, shaggy hair. They have short legs, yellow eyes, and long horns that turn downward as far as their shoulders. They dwell in mountains and are prodigious leapers. They are hunted by a number of means and both their skins and horns are put to human use, the latter serving as massive drinking horns. Scholfield (ad loc.) offers an identification of the “Udad, Ovis lervia.” The aoudad (less accurately “audad”), also called the Barbary sheep, is today known as Ammotragus lervia (WMW, 1229–31) and is a good candidate for this animal. It is not as shaggy as Aelian would indicate, but possesses a striking “ventral mane,” i.e. ...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• The Ancient World From A To Z
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• fm-chapter1
• Contents
• List of figures
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• fm-chapter2
• Abbreviations and citation notes
• Abbreviations of ancient works
• A
• B
• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• K
• L
• M
• N
• O
• P
• R
• S
• T
• U
• V
• W
• Y
• Z
• Bibliography
• General index
• Index of scientific names