The Linen Trade

Ancient and Modern

A.J. Warden

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• eBook ISBN: 9781136230011
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Business General
• Index: Business

It is somewhat surprising that the history of so ancient and important a manufacture as that of Linen, and of the commerce connected with it, has not long before this time been placed in a comprehensive form before the world. It is one of the axioms of Political Economy, as it is held at the present day, that "demand creates supply," but, up to the present time, that has not in this instance been verified. The feeling that such a work was needed has often been expressed, both by the general public and by those immediately concerned in the Trade, but without, until now, having the effect of bringing forth one.

SECTION IV.

MODERN LINEN.

PART I.

CONTINENTAL LINEN.

THE overthrow of the Roman Empire in the fifth century completely destroyed all trade and commerce in the west of Europe. The new monarchies which sprang up from its ruins were founded in blood, and war was both work and pastime to their hardy sons. The necessaries of life were all they sought, luxuries, and even comforts being uncared for or unknown. For a time the Eastern Empire retained a considerable amount of civilization, and in some of the countries under the sway of the Emperors manufactures were encouraged—that of Linen, as ha been shown, flourishing for ages in Greece, where the trade was not wholly extinct in the beginning of the ninth century. The enlightened policy of the Christian sovereigns of Byzantium had no influence on the warlike tribes in the west. There darkness the most complete reigned for centuries, and during that period there was no Linen manufacture to describe, no progress to record.

The Great States, pre-occupied by war, left trade and commerce, the arts and sciences, to Petty States, or whoever chose to prosecute them. The free cities in Italy were the first to show signs of returning life. Those of the Netherlands and of the Hanse Towns afterwards sprang into existence, and they were mainly instrumental in spreading a knowledge of manufacturing industry throughout Europe. Venice, Pisa, Genoa, and other Italian cities became the medium of communication between the nations of the East and of Western Europe. They imported the precious productions of India, Egypt, and the various countries of the East, including silks, Linens, &c., and exchanged them with the Germans, Franks, English, and other western nations, for the mineral wealth or the produce of the fields and forests of those lands. By this means these cities acquired vast wealth and political importance, far beyond what the limited extent of their territories would otherwise have commanded. Sometimes one city was predominant in power and then another, and sometimes they rivalled each other in greatness, and, striving for pre-eminence, weakened each other, and rendered themselves an easy prey to the common enemy.

Charlemagne, who ascended the throne of France in 768, by an enlightened and liberal policy did much for the establishment of manufactures in Germany and France, and for the extension of civilization and the arts among his people. He introduced Christianity, founded Hamburg (in 804), and other cities which afterwards rose to great commercial importance, and encouraged trade as far as the genius of his age would permit. The city of Bruges, founded in 760, afterwards became famous in the manufactures of Flanders. Other maritime or manufacturing towns gradually rose up in Brabant, Flanders, &c., which in time procured privileges from their feudal lords, especially the guidance of their own affairs, and pre-emption from arbitrary assessment by their feudal superior, and from following him in his wars. This freedom and these privileges were then of great avail in fostering commerce and manufactures while in their infancy. Now that trade has attained mature strength, exclusive privileges and national aid are only hindrances, which ought all to be swept away.

Baldwin, the younger (III.), Count or Earl of Flanders, was an enlightened prince, far in advance of his age. The Flemings were the first who began to earn their living by weaving, and, lying near France, says the Pensionary De Witt, they “sold the cloth to that fruitful land, where the inhabitants were not only able to feed themselves, but also by the superfluous growth of their country, could put themselves into good apparel.” Baldwin, seeing the advantage to be derived from trade, both by himself and his people, set up annual Fairs, without tolls or duties, in several towns. The Flemish historians say that “he fortified several cities, and then invited into the country all manner of handicraftsmen for making of all manner of manufactures, to whom he granted great privileges, and established fairs at Bruges, Courtray, Tor-bout, Mount Cassel,” &c., &c. Through his instrumentality manufactures both of wool and Flax made rapid progress in Flanders, and from his enlightened policy much permanent good has flowed to all the nations of the world.

In Anderson’s Commercial History it is said that “the woollen manufacture in all probability preceded the Linen, the former being in a manner absolutely requisite for preserving men from the inclemency of the weather, the latter being a species of luxury, many barbarous nations at this time living without any Linen at all. As men fell into commerce, and consequently grew richer and more elegant, they gave the greater encouragement to so cleanly and desirable a wear as Linen next their bodies. The Linen manufacture came first from Egypt into Greece and Italy, and thence travelled westward into France and Flanders, next probably into Germany and England, before it grew in the more northern and north-eastern parts of Europe, where it has since prospered very much. Others think that the Carthagenians first introduced it into Europe.”

Whether the Linen manufacture came by way of Carthage, or direct from Egypt to Greece or Rome, it is certain that it originated in Egypt, and thence found its way into Europe. During the dark ages that succeeded the downfall of the Roman power it lay dormant, but it was again vivified and restored in the dawn of the new born civilization which gradually threw light over western Europe. The spread of Christianity tended much to withdraw the veil which had overspread the western world, and to introduce a relish for Linen as an article of apparel, and for household and sacred purposes.

According to Voltaire, in the time of Charlemagne there were manufactures of woollen stuff, but Linen was uncommon. In proof of this he relates that “St Boniface, in a letter to a German bishop, desires him to send him cloth with a large nap for him to make use of in washing his feet—probably,” adds Voltaire, “this want of Linen was the cause of all the diseases in the skin known by the name of leprosy, at that time so general.”

If Linen was uncommon in Europe at that period, the value of it very speedily became widely known, and its use general in many countries. The progress of the Linen manufacture in some of the nations on the Continent of Europe where the trade is carried on extensively will now be given.

In some of the European States the Linen trade is not in modern times of much consequence, it being wholly of a domestic character, and the Flax grown is spun by hand, and weaved at home for family use. In others recent details have not been got to so complete an extent as was or is desirable, in some cases because statistical accounts are not made up, and in others because access to them were not available.

Many of the statistics given are taken from the published reports by the Secretaries of Legation at the different courts, and from those of the Consuls at the various ports. Several of these reports are got up with great care, and contain much useful information, but others are very meagre and of little use. Unfortunately there are some Secretaries and many Consuls who do not appear to send in reports at all, and this is much to be regretted, as these parties have the means of acquiring a knowledge of the trade and manufactures of the respective countries and ports not available to others. For easy reference the monies and weights and measures given in these reports have generally been calculated into British standards, and are so given. The letter-press has been collected from a great variety of sources, and it is as full as, from the nature of the work, could conveniently be given,

CHAPTER I.

ITALIAN LINEN.

THE rude and barbarous nations who overthrew the Roman power in Western Europe manufactured little and traded less. They came from lands where the necessaries of life alone were sought, where the gratification of their passions was their chief desire, and where might was right. The people, steeped in poverty and ignorance, felt few of the wants of civilized life, and despised its luxuries. Even with their leaders works of art were valueless, and luxurious habits and cultivated taste were looked upon as crimes. The normal condition of such nations was more allied to the savage than to the civilized state, and rudeness and barbarity were natural to them. When such was the social state of the dominant race, it is not surprising that their laws should have been arbitrary and cruel, calculated alike to oppress the body and deaden the soul; or that their government should have been despotic and tyrannical, extinguishing everywhere the light of civilization, and so producing universal gloom.

After centuries of darkness, benighted Italy was the first to re-open her eyes and usher in the dawn of brighter and better days. Her cities, grown independent and great, became marts of commerce, her citizens merchant princes. They opened up the trade with India through Constantinople, Trebizond, and Persia, and were for many ages the medium of communication between the warlike nations of Europe, and the luxurious and enervated inhabitants of the East. Venice, Genoa, and other Italian cities had vast fleets, with which they traded to all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean and Euxine Seas, to Western Europe, and to the Moorish cities on the Atlantic. Flax was imported from Egypt and other countries, or raised at home, and the Linen trade formed an important part of their domestic industry. With the fall of the proud republican cities the manufactures of Italy languished and died, but in modern times it has somewhat revived, and the new regime may, by and bye, consolidate and extend it.

In various parts of Italy, Flax and Hemp are largely cultivated, not only for the native manufactures of the country, but also for export. Many of the districts of that beautiful country, a land of sunny skies and fertile soil, are admirably adapted for the growth of these textile fibres, and some of them produce both Flax and Hemp of the very finest quality. The Hemp of Bologna, of Ferrara, of Cesena, of Ascoli, and of Naples, is highly esteemed. Not less so is the Flax of the provinces of Cremona, of Lodi, and of Brescia in Lombardy, and of other places. At Solerno, and in some other districts, the cultivation of Flax is of recent date, but it is making some progress. In the mountainous regions of Lombardy and Venetia, Flax and Hemp are grown chiefly for native use, but a little of both, and also some cloth, are exchanged with the Milanese and other low countries for the produce and fabrics of these places.

According to the Italian Statistical Annual for 1857, the production of raw Hemp had risen in Italy, in round number, to 40,000,000 kilogrammes, which at £2 17s the 100 kilogrammes gives an annual value of £1,120,000, one-half of which applies to Bologna, Ferrara, and Cesena. Some competent valuers estimate the total quantity raised at 50,000,000 kilogrammes, allowing to Piedmont and the Neapolitan Provinces about 10,000,000 more than is given in the report. It would thus appear that the total quantity annually raised in Italy is close upon 50,000 tons. About 16,000 tons are exported to Switzerland, Germany, France, Great Britain, Spain and Portugal, the remainder being required to supply the inland consumption.

The culture of Hemp, in order to be productive, requires numerous special conditions as regards soil, water courses, &c., which very much restricts its limits, and localizes it in particular places, sometimes very remote from each other. The provinces of Bologna and Ferrara are not only the centre of the Hemp production in the north, but also that of the best methods of cultivation. They yield the best produce, and amongst them the giant Hemp (Canopa, gigante), which has been much approved in the various International Exhibitions. The Bolognese Hemp almost rivals Flax, and is distinguished by its whiteness, brilliancy, softness, and divisibility of fibre. The Ferrarese Hemp is of long staple, more tenacious, and well adapted for sacking, sailcloth, and cordage. The Hemp of Cesena, Venice, Piedmont, and the south partakes more of the nature of the Bolognese.

In the Hemp growing districts of the north of Italy very great attention is paid to it in every stage of its progress. The preparation of the soil is of primary importance, as the crop always corresponds to the care bestowed upon it. It is ploughed and reploughed in autumn, and in many places spade husbandry, auxiliary to the plough, is adopted. Before sowing the soil is broken and levelled by machines adapted for the purpose, and then divided into beds. The refuse of the stable has always been considered as normal and necessary manure, but prepared and other manure is used by some growers. The management of the supply of water requires care, and various contrivances have been adopted for its proper regulation. Under favourable circumstances Hemp grows in some districts to a prodigious height, and some specimen stalks of Farrarese have been shown from sixteen to twenty feet in length.

Retting is the most difficult and the most important of all the operations with Hemp, and it is performed in lakes, ponds, and running streams. Artificial pits or pools are considered best, and almost every grower has his own pits, excavated in the lowest part so as to collect the rain water. When near rivers or canals the water in the pits is changed when the process of maceration has made some progress, which makes it easy to regulate the fermentation, and it prevents the matter formed during the maceration from being deposited. With the same object, where the water cannot be run off it is drawn off by pumps or ot...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Halftitle
• Title
• Copyright
• Preface
• Contents
• Section I. The Raw Material
• Section II. Ancient Linen
• Section III. The Linen Manufactures of the Olden Time
• Section IV. Modern Linen
• Section V. Manufacturing Operations
• Appendix
• Index